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0 (hodnocen0 x )

(1) Půjčeno:1x 

BK

1st pub.

Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2000

xix, 564 s. : il. ; 25 cm

ISBN 0-521-66973-1 (brož.)

Dotisk 2001, 2002

Obsahuje bibliografické odkazy a rejstřík

000195508

Preface xv // Acknowledgements xviii // 1 Component processes of ecological research i // Summar y 1 // 1.1 Questions about the process of scientific research 2 // 1.2 Scientific methodology 4 // 1.3 Distinction between progress and process in scientific research 5 // 1.4 Section I: Developing an analytical framework 6 // 1.5 Section II: Making a synthesis for scientific inference 8 // 1.6 Section III: Working in the research community 9 // 1.7 Section IV: Defining a methodology for ecological research 10 // 1.8 Synopsis of methodological problems facing a new researcher in // ecology 11 // 1.9 How to use this book to develop your research skills 11 // 1.10 Further reading 13 // Introduction to Section I: Developing an analytical framework 15 // 2 Five processes of research planning 19 // Summary 19 // 2.1 Introduction 20 // 2.2 Process 1: Defining a research question 21 // 2.2.1 Origins and types of research questions 21 // 2.2.2 Analysis of questions 24 // 2.3 Process 2: Applying creativity to develop new’ research ideas 28 // 2.4 Process 3: Ensuring the proposed research has relevance to prior // scientific knowledge 29 // 2.5 Process 4: Ensuring the proposed research is technically feasible and can be completed with available resources 32 // 2.6 Process 5: Determining how conclusions can be drawn 33 // 2.6.1 Developing a data statement: An example 34 // 2.6.2 Using statistics to illuminate the problem, not support a position 38 // 2.7 Further reading 40 // 3 Conceptual and propositional analysis for defining research problems 41 // Summary 41 // 3.1 Introduction 41 // 3.2 Constituents and properties of theories 42 // 3.3 Conceptual and propositional analysis 56 // 3.3.1 Phase One: Identifying the principal issues 57 // 3.3.2 Phase Two: Classifying concepts according to their status in the progress of research 58 //

3.3.3 Phase Three: Examining the complete research procedure 65 // 3.4 Representing theories as networks 65 // 3.5 What can be gained from a conceptual and propositional analysis? 67 // 3.5.1 Deciding whether you can assume something or must investigate it 69 // 3.5.2 Understanding logical relationships between different pieces of knowledge 69 // 3.5.3 Assessing how complete a theory is 70 // 3.5.4 Knowing when to start practical investigation 70 // 3.6 Conclusion 71 // 3.7 Further reading 71 // Development of a research plan 73 // Summary 73 // 4.1 Introduction 73 // 4.2 Process 1: Defining a research question 74 // 4.2.1 The first description 74 // 4.2.2 Initial development of a theory for the problem 76 // 4.2.3 First definitions // 4.2.4 First consideration of Process 4: Ensuring the proposed research is technically feasible and can be completed with available resources 78 // 4.2.5 First consideration of Process 2: Applying creativity to develop new research ideas 79 // 4.2.6 Continuation of Process 1: Defining a research question 80 // 4.3 Process 4: Ensuring the proposed research is technically feasible and can be completed with available resources 85 // 4.4 Process 3: Ensuring the proposed research has relevance to prior // scientific knowledge 93 // 4.5 Process 2: Applying creativity to develop new research ideas 94 // 4.6 Process 5: Determining how conclusions can be drawn 95 // 4.7 Steel’s comments on the planning process after completing her Master’s thesis 101 // 4.8 Further reading 102 // 5 How theories develop and how to use them 103 // Summary 103 // 5.1 Introduction 103 // 5.2 Development of a theory from a simple postulate: Late-Quaternary vegetation change in central Alaska 108 // 5.2.1 Stage 1: Rejecting a simple postulate 108 // 5.2.2 Stage 2: Exploring for spatial and temporal changes 111 //

5.2.3 Stage 3: Introducing axioms from tree ecology 113 // 5.2.4 Stage 4: Increasing the precision of the theory 114 // 5.2.5 Stage 5: Working towards explanations that are coherent with // meteorological theories 115 // 5.2.6 Assessment of theory development 116 // 5.3 Practical application of a theory: Hybridization in fish species 118 // 5.4 Development, properties, and use of ecological theories 127 // 5.5 Further reading 129 // 6 The art of measurement and experiment 131 // Summary 131 // 6.1 Introduction 131 // 6.2 Principles of measurement for new concepts 133 // 6.3 Experimental analysis of ecological systems 136 // 6.4 Planning an analytical experiment: An example - control of photosynthesis rate of Pinus strobus trees 142 // 6.4.1 Results from an improved measurement technique 142 // 6.4.2 Observing an anomaly 143 // 6.4.3 Making a conceptual analysis of the problem 146 // 6.4.4 Constructing multiple postulates 149 // 6.4.5 Choosing a postulate to study 152 // 6.4.6 Defining the experimental conditions 156 // 6.4.7 Developing a measurement 158 // 6.4.8 Designing treatment application, replication, and controls 159 // 6.4.9 Investigating ancillary processes to aid interpretation and // assessment 164 // 6.5 Whole-system analytical experiments 164 // 6.6 Discussion 165 // 6.7 Further reading 167 // 7 Methods of reasoning in research 169 // Summary 169 // 7.1 Introduction 170 // 7.2 Principles of propositional logic 171 // 7.3 Ihe use of propositional logic in ecological research 178 // 7.4 The hypothetico-deductive method and use of falsification in // scientific reasoning 183 // 7.5 An exercise in choosing between postulates expected to be true and // postulates expected to be false 187 // 7.6 How to decide whether to attempt confirmation or falsification 189 // 7.7 Using contrasts 195 // 7.8 Causality 196 //

7.9 A strategy for constructing theory using multiple working postulates 200 // 7.10 Discussion 201 // 7.11 Further reading 202 // 8 Assessment of postulates 203 // Summary 203 // 8.1 Introduction 204 // 8.2 Refining postulates using exploratory analysis 206 // 8.3 Developing a scientific procedure and set of measurements 210 // 8.4 Satisfying the logic required for statistical inference 219 // 8.4.1 Constructing and assessing a statistical hypothesis 226 // 8.4.2 Completing the data statement 231 // 8.5 Discussion 231 // 8.6 Further reading 234 // 9 Individual philosophies and their methods 235 // Summary 235 // 9.1 Introduction 235 // 9.2 Initial assumptions 239 // 9.2.1 Teleology 239 // 9.2.2 Parsimony 242 // 9.2.3 Holism and reductionism 243 // 9.2.4 Teleology, parsimony, and reductionism in ecology 244 // 9.3 First formalizations of methodology 251 // 9.3.1 Empiricism 251 // 9.3.2 Rationalism 254 // 9.3.3 Empiricism and rationalism in ecology 256 // 9.4 Uncertainty about the objectivity of method 264 // 9.4.1 Criticism 264 // 9.4.2 Relativism 265 // 9.4.3 Statistical experimentalism 266 // 9.5 Discussion 267 // 9.6 Further reading 268 // Introduction to Section II: Making a synthesis for scientific inference 269 // 10 Properties and domains of ecological concepts 279 // Summary 279 // 10.1 Introduction 280 // 10.2 Definition and purpose of ecological concepts 281 // 10.3 The domain of functional and integrative concepts 288 // 10.4 Example of use and development of ecological concepts and their domains 291 // 10.4.1 Developing definitions of natural and functional concepts 291 // 10.4.2 Using functional concepts to define an integrative concept 293 // 10.4.3 Making inference about an integrative concept 300 // 10.5 Discussion 305 // 10.6 Further reading 308 // 11 Strategies of scientific research in ecology 309 // Summary 309 // 11.1 Introduction 310 //

11.2 Does ecological science advance through recurring revolutions? 311 // 11.2.1 The ecosystem revolution 313 // 11.2.2 The progress of normal science 315 // 11.2.3 Did a revolution terminate the paradigm? 319 // 11.2.4 How useful is Kuhn’s theory’ for understanding research // strategy’? 323 // 11.2.5 Scientific inference and the ecosystem paradigm 324 // 11.3 The methodology of scientific research programs 327 // 11.3.1 A strategy for continuous assessment 327 // 11.3.2 The components of a scientific research program 328 // 11.3.3 lop-down and bottom-up forces in population and / community ’ecology’ 330 // 11.3.4 Criticisms of the methodology’ of scientific research programs 342 // 11.4 The investigation of domains 344 // 11.5 Discussion 348 // 11.6 Further reading 349 // 12 Use of mathematical models for constructing // explanations in ecology 351 // Summary 351 // 12.1 Introduction 352 // 12.2 Dynamic systems models 353 // 12.2.1 Simple differential equation models 353 // 12.2.2 Using dynamic systems models to predict the unexpected 359 // 12.2.3 Fitting dynamic systems models to ecological systems 363 // 12.3 Statistical models of dependence 368 // 12.3.1 Modeling dependence in time series as a stochastic process 369 // 12.3.2 Assessing a stochastic time series model as an explanation 375 // 12.4 Systems simulation models 378 // 12.4.1 Objectives, theory, and model design 379 // 12.4.2 Calibration and validation 382 // 12.4.3 Assessing using multiple outputs 385 // 12.5 Discussion 389 // 12.6 Further reading 391 // Introduction to Section III: Working in the research community 393 // 13 Scientific research as a social process 395 // Summary 395 // 13.1 Introduction 396 // 13.2 Social influences and social structures 397 // 13.2.1 The balance between norms and counternorms in scientists’ behavior 397 //

13.2.2 Cooperation and competition between individual // scientists 403 // 13.2.3 Fraud and misconduct in science 407 // 13.2.4 The role of gender in scientific debate and discovery 410 // 13.3 Creation and use of scientific literature 412 // 13.3.1 Constructing a scientific paper 413 // 13.3.2 Peer review 415 // 13.3.3 Problems of quantity and quality 421 // 13.3.4 Literature citation and its analysis 423 // 13.4 Developing and using explicit standards of criticism to construct objective knowledge 425 // 13.5 Discussion 427 // 13.6 Further reading 429 // 14 Values and standpoints and their influence on research 431 // Summary 431 // 14.1 Introduction 431 // 14.2 Standpoints in science, management, and policy 433 // 14.2.1 Scientists’ standpoints 433 // 14.2.2 Managerial standpoints 439 // 14.3 Reviewing and funding scientific research 443 // 14.3.1 Research proposals and their peer review 444 // 14.3.2 Scientific research with policy implications 452 // 14.4 Science, scientists, and society 455 // 14.5 Discussion 462 // 14.6 Further reading 463 // Introduction to Section IV: Defining a methodology for ecological research 465 // 15 The methodology of progressive synthesis 467 // Summary 467 // 15.1 Introduction 468 // 15.2 The standpoint of Progressive Synthesis 468 // 15.2.1 Types of acceptable explanation 469 // 15.2.2 Certainty in scientific inference 472 // 15.3 Principles of Progressive Synthesis 474 // 15.3.1 Principle I: Continuous application of just and effective criticism 475 // 15.3.2 Principle II: Precision is required in defining axioms and concepts, postulates and data statements, and theories 476 // 15.3.3 Principle III: Explicit standards must be used to examine the // relation between theory and data 478 // 15.4 Components of the method of Progressive Synthesis 481 //

15.4.1 Component 1: Analyze the question and seek to use contrastive techniques to focus the research 482 // 15.4.2 Component 2: Expect to use different techniques of investigation as theories develop and new types of question arc asked 487 // 15.4.3 Component 3: Refine both measurement and concept definitions 488 // 15.4.4 Component 4: Specify the new synthesis resulting from the research 488 // 15.4.5 Component 5: Define explanatory coherence of the synthesis to make a scientific inference 493 // 15.5 Discussion 494 // 15.6 Further reading 496 // 16 Criticisms and improvements for the scientific // method in ecology 497 // Summary 497 // 16.1 Introduction 497 // 16.2 Criticisms of ecological research 499 // 16.2.1 There has been lack of progress in ecology 499 // 16.2.2 No general theory has emerged 500 // 16.2.3 Ecological concepts are inadequate 503 // 16.2.4 Ecologists fail to test their theories 505 // 16.3 Suggestions made for improving ecological research 506 // 16.3.1 Suitable research objectives for ecology 507 // 16.3.2 Forms of reasoning that should be used 511 // 16.3.3 The relation between concepts and theories 511 // 16.4 Ideals and strategy of Progressive Synthesis 514 // 16.5 Further reading 518 // Appendix: Suggestions for instructors 521 // References 525 // Glossary 541 // Author index 555 // Subject index 559