Preface vii Acknowledgements ix Contributors xi // SECTION 1 : Introduction and scientific concepts 1 // 1 Introduction: current concepts and clinical decision making in electrotherapy 3 - Tim Watson // 2 Electrophysical and thermal principles 11 - Gailter Haar // 3 Electrical properties of tissues 37 - Tim Watson // 4 Tissue repair 53 - Sheila Kitchen and Stephen R. Young // 5 Sensory and motor nerve activation 67 - Mary Cramp and Dona Scott // 6 Physiology of pain 85 - Leslie Wood // 7 Thermal effects 99 - Sheila Kitchen // 8 Low-energy treatments: non-thermal or microthermal? 115 - Sheila Kitchen and Mary Dyson // SECTION 2: Thermal and non-thermal modalities 123 // 9 Heat and cold application 125 - Sheila Kitchen // 10 Pulsed and continuous shortwave therapy 137 - Maryam M. Al-Mandeel and Tim Watson // 11 Low-intensity laser therapy 161 - G. David Baxter // 12 Therapeutic ultrasound 179 - Tim Watson and Stephen R. Young // SECTION 3: Electrical stimulation modalities 201 // 13 Introduction to low-frequency currents 203 - Deirdre M. Walsh // 14 Neuromuscular electrical stimulation: nerve-muscle interaction 211 - Mary Cramp and Oona Scott // 15 Neuromuscular and muscular electrical stimulation 231 - Suzanne McDonough // 16 Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) 253 - Mark I. Johnson // 17 Interferential current 297 - Shea Palmer and Denis Martin // 18 Functional electrical Stimulation 317 - David Ewins and Sally Durham // 19 Electrical stimulation for enhanced wound healing 329 - Tim Watson // SECTION 4: Ultrasound imaging 347 // 20 Musculoskeletal ultrasound imaging 349 - John Leddy // SECTION 5: Contraindications, dangers and precautions 361 // 21 Guidance for the clinical use of electrophysical agents 2006 363 - Sarah Bazin, Sheila Kitchen, David Maskill, Ann Reed, Alison Skinner, Deirdre Walsh and Tim Watson // Index 389