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EB

EB

ONLINE

Second, Completely Revised, Extended And Updated Edition

Cham : Springer International Publishing, 2017

1 online zdroj

ISBN 978-3-319-54413-7 (e-kniha)

ISBN 9783319544120 (print)

Springer Tracts in Advanced Robotics, ISSN 1610-7438 ; 118

Part I Foundations -- Part II Mobile Robots -- Part III Arm-type Robots -- Part IV Vision -- Part V Robotics and Vision.

Robotic vision, the combination of robotics and computer vision, involves the application of computer algorithms to data acquired from sensors. The research community has developed a large body of such algorithms but for a newcomer to the field this can be quite daunting. For over 20 years the author has maintained two open-source MATLAB® Toolboxes, one for robotics and one for vision. They provide implementations of many important algorithms and allow users to work with real problems, not just trivial examples. This book makes the fundamental algorithms of robotics, vision and control accessible to all. It weaves together theory, algorithms and examples in a narrative that covers robotics and computer vision separately and together. Using the latest versions of the Toolboxes the author shows how complex problems can be decomposed and solved using just a few simple lines of code.-.

* strojové vidění

001477861

1 Introduction 1 // 1.1 Robots, Jobs and Ethics 7 // 1.2 About the Book 8 // 1.2.1 MATLAB Software and the Toolboxes 9 // 1.2.2 Notation, Conventions and Organization 10 // 1.2.3 Audience and Prerequisites 11 // 1.2.4 Learning with the Book 11 // 1.2.5 Teaching with the Book 12 // 1.2.6 Outline 12 // Further Reading 14 // Parti Foundations 15 // 2 Representing Position and Orientation 17 // 2.1 Working in Two Dimensions (2D) 22 // 2.1.1 Orientation in 2-Dimensions 23 // 2.1.2 Pose in 2-Dimensions 26 // 2.2 Working in Three Dimensions (3D) 31 // 2.2.1 Orientation in 3-Dimensions 32 // 2.2.2 Pose in 3-Dimensions 46 // 2.3 Advanced Topics 49 // 2.3.1 Normalization 49 // 2.3.2 Understanding the Exponential Mapping 50 // 2.3.3 More About Twists 52 // 2.3.4 Dual Quaternions 55 // 2.3.5 Configuration Space 55 // 2.4 Using the Toolbox 56 // 2.5 Wrapping Up 58 // Further Reading 60 // Exercises 61 // 3 Time and Motion 63 // 3.1 Time-Varying Pose 63 // 3.1.1 Derivative of Pose 63 // 3.1.2 Transforming Spatial Velocities 64 // 3.1.3 Incremental Rotation 66 // 3.1.4 Incremental Rigid-Body Motion 67 // 3.2 Accelerating Bodies and Reference Frames 68 // 3.2.1 Dynamics of Moving Bodies 68 // 3.2.2 Transforming Forces and Torques 69 // 3.2.3 Inertial Reference Frame 69 // 3.3 Creating Time-Varying Pose 70 // 3.3.1 Smooth One-Dimensional Trajectories 70 // 3.3.2 Multi-Dimensional Trajectories 73 // 3.3.3 Multi-Segment Trajectories 74 // 3.3.4 Interpolation of Orientation in 3D 75 // 3.3.5 Cartesian Motion in 3D 77 // 3.4 Application: Inertial Navigation 79 // 3.4.1 Gyroscopes 79 // 3.4.2 Accelerometers 81 // 3.4.3 Magnetometers 85 // 3.4.4 Sensor Fusion 87 // 3.5 Wrapping Up 90 // Further Reading 90 // Exercises 91 // Part II Mobile Robots 93 // 4 Mobile Robot Vehicles 99 // 4.1 Wheeled Mobile Robots 99 // 4.1.1 Car-Like Mobile Robots 99 // 4.1.2 Differentially-Steered Vehicle 109 //

4.1.3 Omnidirectional Vehicle 112 // 4.2 Flying Robots 114 // 4.3 Advanced Topics 119 // 4.3.1 Nonholonomic // and Under-Actuated Systems 119 // 4.4 Wrapping Up 121 // Further Reading 122 // Toolbox and MATLAB Notes 123 // Exercises 123 // 5 Navigation 125 // 5.1 Reactive Navigation 126 // 5.1.1 Braitenberg Vehicles 126 // 5.1.2 Simple Automata 128 // 5.2 Map-Based Planning 130 // 5.2.1 Distance Transform 130 // 5.2.2 D* 134 // 5.2.3 Introduction to Roadmap Methods 136 // 5.2.4 Probabilistic Roadmap Method (PRM) 137 // 5.2.5 Lattice Planner 140 // 5.2.6 Rapidly-Exploring Random Tree (RRT) 144 // 5.3 Wrapping Up 146 // Further Reading 147 // Resources 148 // MATLAB Notes 148 // Exercises 148 // 6 Localization 151 // 6.1 Dead Reckoning 155 // 6.1.1 Modeling the Vehicle 155 // 6.1.2 Estimating Pose 157 // 6.2 Localizing with a Map 160 // 6.3 Creating a Map 165 // 6.4 Localization and Mapping 167 // 6.5 Rao-Blackwellized SLAM 169 // 6.6 Pose Graph SLAM 170 // Contents xix // 6.7 Sequential Monte-Carlo Localization 175 // 6.8 Application: Scanning Laser Rangefinder 178 // Laser Odometry -r 179 // Laser-Based Map Building 181 // Laser-Based Localization 182 // 6.9 Wrapping Up 182 // Further Reading 183 // Toolbox and MATLAB Notes 185 // Exercises 185 // Partili Arm-Type Robots 189 // 7 Robot Arm Kinematics 193 // 7.1 Forward Kinematics 193 // 7.1.1 2-Dimensional (Planar) Robotic Arms 194 // 7.1.2 3-Dimensional Robotic Arms 196 // 7.2 Inverse Kinematics 205 // 7.2.1 2-Dimensional (Planar) Robotic Arms 205 // 7.2.2 3-Dimensional Robotic Arms 207 // 7.3 Trajectories 211 // 7.3.1 Joint-Space Motion 211 // 7.3.2 Cartesian Motion 214 // 7.3.3 Kinematics in Simulink 214 // 7.3.4 Motion through a Singularity 215 // 7.3.5 Configuration Change 216 // 7.4 Advanced Topics 217 // 7.4.1 Joint Angle Offsets 217 // 7.4.2 Determining Denavit-Hartenberg Parameters 217 //

7.4.3 Modified Denavit-Hartenberg Parameters 218 // 7.5 Applications 220 // 7.5.1 Writing on a Surface 220 // 7.5.2 A Simple Walking Robot 221 // 7.6 Wrapping Up 225 // Further Reading 226 // MATLAB and Toolbox Notes 227 // Exercises 227 // 8 Manipulator Velocity 229 // 8.1 Manipulator Jacobian 229 // 8.1.1 Jacobian in the World Coordinate Frame 229 // 8.1.2 Jacobian in the End-Effector Coordinate Frame 232 // 8.1.3 Analytical Jacobian 232 // 8.2 Jacobian Condition and Manipulability 234 // 8.2.1 Jacobian Singularities 234 // 8.2.2 Manipulability 235 // 8.3 Resolved-Rate Motion Control 237 // 8.3.1 Jacobian Singularity 240 // 8.4 Under- and Over-Actuated Manipulators 240 // 8.4.1 Jacobian for Under-Actuated Robot 241 // 8.4.2 Jacobian for Over-Actuated Robot 242 // 8.5 Force Relationships 244 // 8.5.1 Transforming Wrenches to Joint Space 244 // 8.5.2 Force Ellipsoids 244 // 8.6 Inverse Kinematics: a General Numerical Approach 245 // 8.6.1 Numerical Inverse Kinematics 245 // Contents // 8.7 Advanced Topics 247 // 8.7.1 Computing the Manipulator Jacobian Using Twists 247 // 8.8 Wrapping Up 247 // Further Reading 248 // MATLAB and Toolbox Notes 248 // Exercises 248 // 9 Dynamics and Control 251 // 9.1 Independent Joint Control 251 // 9.1.1 Actuators 251 // 9.1.2 Friction 252 // 9.1.3 Effect of the Link Mass 253 // 9.1.4 Gearbox 254 // 9.1.5 Modeling the Robot Joint 255 // 9.1.6 Velocity Control Loop 257 // 9.1.7 Position Control Loop 261 // 9.1.8 Independent Joint Control Summary 262 // 9.2 Rigid-Body Equations of Motion 263 // 9.2.1 Gravity Term 264 // 9.2.2 Inertia Matrix 266 // 9.2.3 Coriolis Matrix 267 // 9.2.4 Friction 268 // 9.2.5 Effect of Payload 268 // 9.2.6 Base Force 269 // 9.2.7 Dynamic Manipulability 269 // 9.3 Forward Dynamics 271 // 9.4 Rigid-Body Dynamics Compensation 272 // 9.4.1 Feedforward Control 273 // 9.4.2 Computed Torque Control 274 //

9.4.3 Operational Space Control 275 // 9.5 Applications 276 // 9.5.1 Series-Elastic Actuator (SEA) 276 // 9.6 Wrapping Up 278 // Further Reading 278 // Exercises 280 // Part IV Computer Vision 283 // 10 Light and Color 287 // 10.1 Spectral Representation of Light 287 // 10.1.1 Absorption 289 // 10.1.2 Reflectance 290 // 10.1.3 Luminance 290 // 10.2 Color 291 // 10.2.1 The Human Eye 292 // 10.2.2 Measuring Color 294 // 10.2.3 Reproducing Colors 295 // 10.2.4 Chromaticity Space 298 // 10.2.5 Color Names 300 // 10.2.6 Other Color and Chromaticity Spaces 301 // 10.2.7 Transforming between Different Primaries 304 // 10.2.8 What Is White? 306 // 10.3 Advanced Topics 306 // 10.3.1 Color Temperature 306 // 10.3.2 Color Constancy 307 // 10.3.3 White Balancing 308 // 10.3.4 Color Change Due to Absorption 308 // 10.3.5 Dichromatic Reflectance 310 // 10.3.6 Gamma 310 // 10.4 Application: Color Image 312 // 10.4.1 Comparing Color Spaces 312 // 10.4.2 Shadow Removal 313 // 10.5 Wrapping Up 315 // Further Reading 316 // Data Sources 316 // Exercises 317 // 11 Image Formation 319 // 11.1 Perspective Camera 319 // 11.1.1 Perspective Projection 319 // 11.1.2 Modeling a Perspective Camera 322 // 11.1.3 Discrete Image Plane 324 // 11.1.4 Camera Matrix 325 // 11.1.5 Projecting Points 327 // 11.1.6 Lens Distortion 330 // 11.2 Camera Calibration 331 // 11.2.1 Homogeneous Transformation Approach 331 // 11.2.2 Decomposing the Camera // Calibration Matrix 333 // 11.2.3 Pose Estimation 334 // 11.2.4 Camera Calibration Toolbox 335 // 11.3 Wide Field-of-View Imaging 336 // 11.3.1 Fisheye Lens Camera 337 // 11.3.2 Catadioptric Camera 340 // 11.3.3 Spherical Camera 342 // 11.4 Unified Imaging 344 // 11.4.1 Mapping Wide-Angle Images to the Sphere 345 // 11.4.2 Mapping from the Sphere to a Perspective Image 347 // 11.5 Novel Cameras 348 // 11.5.1 Multi-Camera Arrays 348 //

11.5.2 Light-Field Cameras 348 // 11.6 Advanced Topics 350 // 11.6.1 Projecting 3D Lines and Quadrics 350 // 11.6.2 Nonperspective Cameras 352 // 11.7 Wrapping Up 353 // Further Reading and Resources 354 // Toolbox Notes 355 // Exercises 356 // 12 Images and Image Processing 359 // 12.1 Obtaining an Image 359 // 12.1.1 Images from Files 359 // 12.1.2 Images from an Attached Camera 363 // 12.1.3 Images from a Movie File 365 // 12.1.4 Images from the Web 366 // 12.1.5 Images from Maps 367 // 12.1.6 Images from Code 367 // 12.2 Image Histograms 369 // 12.3 Monadic Operations 370 // di Contents // 12.4 Diadic Operations 372 // 12.5 Spatial Operations 376 // 12.5.1 Linear Spatial Filtering 376 // 12.5.2 Template Matching 387 // 12.5.3 Nonlinear Operations 392 // 12.6 Mathematical Morphology 393 // 12.6.1 Noise Removal 396 // 12.6.2 Boundary Detection 398 // 12.6.3 Hit or Miss Transform 398 // 12.6.4 Distance Transform 399 // 12.7 Shape Changing 401 // 12.7.1 Cropping 401 // 12.7.2 Image Resizing 402 // 12.7.3 Image Pyramids 403 // 12.7.4 Image Warping 404 // 12.8 Wrapping Up 407 // Further Reading 407 // Sources of Image Data 409 // MATLAB Notes 409 // General Software Tools 409 // Exercises 410 // 13 Image Feature Extraction 413 // 13.1 Region Features 415 // 13.1.1 Classification 415 // 13.1.2 Representation 424 // 13.1.3 Description 427 // 13.1.4 Summary 437 // 13.2 Line Features 438 // 13.2.1 Summary 443 // 13.3 Point Features 443 // 13.3.1 Classical Corner Detectors 443 // 13.3.2 Scale-Space Corner Detectors 449 // 13.4 Wrapping Up 454 // MATLAB Notes 454 // Further Reading 455 // Exercises 457 // 14 Using Multiple Images 459 // 14.1 Feature Correspondence 460 // 14.2 Geometry of Multiple Views 464 // 14.2.1 The Fundamental Matrix 466 // 14.2.2 The Essential Matrix 468 // 14.2.3 Estimating the Fundamental Matrix from Real Image Data 470 //

14.2.4 Planar Homography 474 // 14.3 Stereo Vision 479 // 14.3.1 Sparse Stereo 479 // 14.3.2 Dense Stereo Matching 483 // 14.3.3 Peak Refinement 489 // 14.3.4 Cleaning up and Reconstruction 491 // 14.3.5 3D Texture Mapped Display 494 // 14.3.6 Anaglyphs 495 // 14.3.7 Image Rectification 496 // 14.4 Bundle Adjustment 497 // 14.5 Point Clouds 503 // 14.5.1 Fitting a Plane 503 // 14.5.2 Matching Two Sets of Points 505 // 14.6 Structured Light ? 507 // 14.7 Applications 509 // 14.7.1 Perspective Correction 509 // 14.7.2 Mosaicing 512 // 14.7.3 Image Matching and Retrieval 514 // 14.7.4 Visual Odometry 520 // 14.8 Wrapping Up 523 // MATLAB and Toolbox Notes 524 // Further Reading 524 // Resources 528 // Exercises 529 // Part V Robotics, Vision and Control 533 // 15 Vision-Based Control 537 // 15.1 Position-Based Visual Servoing 538 // 15.2 Image-Based Visual Servoing 541 // 15.2.1 Camera and Image Motion 542 // 15.2.2 Controlling Feature Motion 547 // 15.2.3 Estimating Feature Depth 551 // 15.2.4 Performance Issues 554 // 15.3 Using Other Image Features 556 // 15.3.1 Line Features 556 // 15.3.2 Circle Features 557 // 15.3.3 Photometric Features 559 // 15.4 Wrapping Up 560 // Further Reading 560 // Exercises 562 // 16 Advanced Visual Servoing 565 // 16.1 XY/Z-Partitioned IBVS 565 // 16.2 IBVS Using Polar Coordinates 568 // 16.3 IBVS for a Spherical Camera 570 // 16.4 Applications 572 // 16.4.1 Arm-Type Robot 572 // 16.4.2 Mobile Robot 573 // 16.4.3 Aerial Robot 576 // 16.5 Wrapping Up 578 // Further Reading 578 // Resources 579 // Exercises 579 // Appendices 581 // A Installing the Toolboxes 583 // B Linear Algebra Refresher 587 // C Geometry 595 // D Lie Groups and Algebras 611 // E Linearization, Jacobians and Hessians 617 // F Solving Systems of Equations 621 // G Gaussian Random Variables 631 // H Kalman Filter 635 // I Graphs 641 // J Peak Finding 645 //

Bibliography 649 // Index 663 // Index of People 663 // Index of Functions, Classes and Methods 664 // General Index 669