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EB

EB

Boca Raton, Florida : CRC Press, [2016]

1 online zdroj

ISBN 9780429111051 (e-book : PDF)

ISBN 9781439887660 (vázáno)

001478287

Foreword xv // Preface xvii // Authors xix // Symbols xxi // Acronyms xxv // Chapter 1 Introduction 1 - Olivier Jolliet, Gabrielle Soucy, Shanna Shaked, Myriam Saadé-Sbeih, and Pierre Crettaz // 1.1 Priorities for the Environment 1 // 1.2 Critical Approach, Objectives, and Book Structure 2 // 1.2.1 Being Critical 2 // 1.2.2 Objectives 2 // 1.2.3 Book Structure 2 // 1.3 Background and Standardization 2 // 1.4 Use of the LCA Tool 5 // Chapter 2 General Principles of Life Cycle Assessment 7 - Olivier Jolliet, Gabrielle Soucy, Shanna Shaked, Myriam Saadé-Sbeih, and Pierre Crettaz // 2.1 Definition of the Four LCA Phases 7 // 2.2 Performing an LCA 9 // 2.2.1 Iterative Method 9 // 2.2.2 Calculations by Hand and Using Software 9 // 2.3 Characteristics Specific to LCA and Comparison with // Other Environmental Analysis Tools 10 // 2.3.1 Characteristics Specific to Life Cycle Assessment 10 // 2.3.2 Comparison with Other Environmental Analysis // Tools 10 // 2.3.2.1 Comparison between Substance Flow // Analysis and LCA 11 // 2.3.2.2 Comparison between Environmental // Impact Assessment and LCA 13 // 2.3.2.3 Comparison between Risk Assessment and LCA 13 // 2.3.2.4 Comparison between Material Flow // Analysis and LCA 14 // 2.3.2.5 Comparison between Carbon // Footprint and LCA 14 // 2.4 Simple Application: Comparing Different Types of Cups 14 // 2.4.1 Goal and Scope Definition of Cup Case Study 14 // 2.4.2 Inventory Analysis of Cup Case Study 16 // 2.4.3 Impact Assessment of Cup Case Study 16 // 2.4.4 Interpretation of Cup Case Study 19 // 2.4.5 Conclusions of Cup Case Study 19 // Exercises 20 // Chapter 3 Goal and System Definition 23 - Olivier Jolliet, Gabrielle Soucy, Shanna Shaked, Myriam Saade-Sbeih, and Pierre Crettaz // 3.1 Objectives 23 // 3.1.1 Goal: Type of Application, Intended Audience, and Stakeholders 23 // 3.1.2 Scope 24 // 3.2 System Function 26 //

3.3 Functional Unit and Reference Flow 27 // 3.3.1 Definitions 27 // 3.3.2 Critical Choice of a Functional Unit: Popcorn as a Packaging Material 28 // 3.3.3 Electric Light Bulbs: Setting Up the Life Cycle // Assessment 30 // 3.3.4 Functional Unit and Reference Flows: A Common // Basis for Both Environmental and Cost Analyses 31 // 3.3.4.1 Electric Light Bulbs: Life Cycle Costs 31 // 3.3.5 Multifunctional Products 32 // 3.4 System Definition 34 // 3.4.1 Principles of System Modeling 34 // 3.4.2 Flowchart 36 // 3.4.3 Description of Scenarios 37 // 3.5 System Boundaries 37 // 3.5.1 Principles of System Boundaries 37 // 3.5.2 Main Considered Processes 38 // 3.5.3 Importance of System Boundaries: Comparing a // Fast-Food and a Traditional Restaurant 38 // 3.5.4 Rules to Define System Boundaries 40 // Exercises 44 // Chapter 4 Inventory Analysis of Emissions and Extractions 47 // 4.1 Principles of Inventory Analysis 48 // 4.1.1 Comparison of Process-Based Inventory with Input/Output Inventory 48 // 4.1.2 Definitions 48 // 4.1.3 Problem of Aggregation over Time and Space 48 // 4.2 Process-Based Calculation of the Inventory 49 // 4.2.1 Step-by-Step Procedure for Process-Based Inventory Analysis 49 // 4.2.2 Calculation and Assessment of Energy Consumption and CO Emissions 50 // 4.2.2.1 Assessment of Energy Consumption 50 // 4.2.2.2 Energy Consumption of Electric Light Bulbs 54 // 4.2.2.3 Assessment of CO Emissions 54 // 4.2.2.4 Checking the Ratio of CO, Emitted per // Megajoule of Nonrenewable Primary Energy 55 // 4.2.2.5 CO Assessment of Electric Light Bulbs 56 // 4.2.2.6 Classifying Products 56 // 4.2.3 Example of Process-Based Life Cycle Inventory: Front-End Panel of an Automobile 57 // 4.2.4 Generalization and Process Matrix Approach 62 // 4.3 Inventory Databases for Process-Based Approach 64 // 4.3.1 Existing Databases 64 // 4.3.2 Ecoinvent 66 //

4.3.2.1 The Project and Its Products 66 // 4.3.2.2 Description of the Ecoinvent 2.2 Database 67 // 4.3.2.3 Principal Characteristics of the Database 67 // 4.3.2.4 New Features of Ecoinvent 3.1 69 // 4.3.2.5 Tips for Using Ecoinvent Database 70 // 4.3.3 Data Quality and Uncertainties 71 // 4.4 Input-Output Approach for Extractions and Emissions Inventory 72 // 4.4.1 Input-Output Calculations 72 // 4.4.2 I/O Database 73 // 4.4.2.1 Determining Economic I/O Matrix 74 // 4.4.2.2 Determining I/O Environmental Matrix 74 // 4.4.2.3 1/0 Country-Specific Databases 76 // 4.4.2.4 I/O Multiregional Databases 78 // 4.4.3 Example of Input-Output LCA: Aluminum // Front-End Panel of Automobile 78 // 4.4.3.1 Functional Unit, Reference Flow, and // Final Demand 78 // 4.4.3.2 Economic Data and Determination of // the I/O Economic Matrix 79 // 4.4.3.3 Environmental Data and Determination // of the Environmental Matrix 80 // 4.4.3.4 Calculation of Total Monetary Output per Functional Unit 81 // 4.4.3.5 Primary Energy and CO2 Emissions // per Functional Unit over the Supply Chain of Front-End Panel and Gasoline.81 // 4.4.3.6 CO2 Emissions during Usage Stage 82 // 4.4.3.7 Comparison with Process LCA 82 // 4.4.3.8 Analysis of Impacts by Supply Chain Tier 82 // 4.4.4 Advantages and Limitations of I/O Approach 83 // 4.4.5 Combined Hybrid Use of Process and I/O Approaches 84 // 4.4.5.1 Level 1: Verification of System Boundaries 84 // 4.4.5.2 Level 2: Impacts of Services 85 // 4.4.5.3 Level 3: Hybrid Approach 85 // 4.5 Coproducts and Allocation 85 // 4.5.1 Issues When Multiple Products Are Made by // One System 85 // 4.5.2 Product Categories and Allocation 85 // 4.5.2.1 Coproducts 85 // 4.5.2.2 Waste (to Be Disposed Of) 86 // 4.5.2.3 Recycled Waste and By-Products with Low Economic Value 86 // 4.5.3 Allocation Methods for Coproducts 87 // 4.5.3.1 Allocation Procedure from ISO 14044 87 //

4.5.3.2 (a) Avoiding Allocation 88 // 4.5.3.3 Process Subdivision 88 // 4.5.3.4 System Expansion 89 // 4.5.3.5 (b) Physical Allocation 92 // 4.5.3.6 (bl) Marginal Variation 92 // 4.5.3.7 (b2) Representative Parameter in the Case of a Common Function 93 // 4.5.3.8 (b3) Property Reflecting a Causal // Physical Relation 94 // 4.5.3.9 (c) Economic or Functional Causality 95 // 4.5.4 Sensitivity Analysis and Comparison of // Different Methods 95 // 4.5.5 Open-Loop Recycling of Waste-Like Coproducts: Financial Allocation 96 // 4.5.5.1 Principle 96 // 4.5.5.2 Example: The Case of Manure 96 // 4.5.5.3 Case Study Application as Example 97 // 4.5.6 Summary of Allocation 97 // Exercises 100 // Chapter 5 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 105 - Olivier Jolliet, Shanna Shaked, Myriam Saadé-Sbeih, Cécile Bulle, Alexandre Jolliet, and Pierre Crettaz // 5.1 Purpose of Impact Assessment 105 // 5.2 Principles of Impact Assessment 106 // 5.2.1 General Principles 106 // 5.2.2 Methodological Framework: Midpoint and // Damage Categories 107 // 5.2.3 Steps of Impact Assessment 108 // 5.2.3.1 Classification 109 // 5.2.3.2 Midpoint Characterization 109 // 5.2.3.3 Damage Characterization: Getting // from Midpoint to Damage 110 // 5.2.3.4 Optional Steps: Normalization, Grouping, and Weighting 112 // 5.2.4 Uncertainties and Use of Evaluation Methods of Impact 115 // 5.3 Application Example of the IMPACT Worlds Method: Front-End Panel of an Automobile 115 // 5.3.1 Analysis of Inventory Results 115 // 5.3.2 General IMPACT World+ Framework and // Classification 116 // 5.3.3 Midpoint Characterization of Front-End Panel Scenarios 117 // 5.3.4 Damage Characterization of Front-End Panel // Scenarios 118 // 5.3.5 Normalization of Front-End Panel Scenarios 120 // 5.3.6 Weighting of Impacts for Front-End Panel 121 // 5.4 Overview of the Main Impact Assessment Methods 121 //

5.5 Description of the Main Impact Assessment Methods 125 // 5.5.1 Critical Volumes: An Outdated Approach 125 // 5.5.2 EPS 2000d Method 126 // 5.5.3 Eco-indicator 99 126 // 5.5.4 Dutch Handbook on LCA 127 // 5.5.4.1 Classification and Characterization 127 // 5.5.4.2 Normalization and Evaluation 128 // 5.5.5 Ecological Scarcity Method 128 // 5.5.6 TRACI, the U.S. EPA Method 129 // 5.5.7 IMPACT 2002+ 130 // 5.5.7.1 Human Health 130 // 5.5.7.2 Ecosystem Quality 131 // 5.5.7.3 Climate Change 131 // 5.5.7.4 Resources 131 // 5.5.8 LIME: The Japanese Method 131 // 5.5.9 ReCiPe 2008 133 // 5.5.10 New European Method 135 // 5.5.11 IMPACT World+ 138 // 5.5.12 USEtox 140 // 5.6 Future Developments 142 // 5.6.1 Further Spatial Differentiation 142 // 5.6.2 Methods for Higher Resolution Life Cycle Impact Assessment 142 // 5.6.3 Substances and Impact Categories 143 // 5.6.4 Harmonization of Life Cycle Impact Assessment: The Life Cycle Initiative Flagship Project for LCIA Global Guidance 143 // Exercises 144 // Chapter 6 Interpretation 149 // 6.1 Interpret! Interpret! Interpret! 149 // 6.2 Identification of Action Priorities 150 // 6.3 Interpretation Example: Desktop versus Laptop Computer 150 // 6.3.1 Goal and Scope Definition 151 // 6.3.1.1 Definition of System Boundaries 151 // 6.3.2 Inventory 151 // 6.3.3 Impact Assessment 154 // 6.3.4 Assessment Based on Updated Data and Method 155 // 6.4 Quality Control 156 // 6.4.1 Controls at Every Phase of LCA 157 // 6.4.1.1 Goal and Scope Definition: System Modeling 157 // 6.4.1.2 Inventory Analysis: Unit Control 157 // 6.4.1.3 Inventory Analysis: Mass Balance 157 // 6.4.1.4 Inventory Analysis: Energy and CO2 Balances “by Hand” 157 // 6.4.1.5 Inventory Analysis: Comparing CO // and Energy 158 // 6.4.1.6 Inventory Analysis: Comparison of Inventory Results with Other Studies 158 //

6.4.1.7 Impact Assessment: Toxicity Check 158 // 6.4.1.8 Impact Assessment: Rules for Proper // Use of LCA Software 158 // 6.4.1.9 Project Management: Recommended Use of Spreadsheets 159 // 6.4.1.10 Project Management: Rules for Project // Documentation 159 // 6.4.2 Critical or Peer Review to Check for a Comprehensive and Consistent Study 159 // 6.5 Overview of Uncertainty, Variability, and Data Quality 160 // 6.5.1 General Principles and Types of Uncertainty 160 // 6.5.1.1 Uncertainties in the Four LCA Phases 160 // 6.5.1.2 Parameter Uncertainty 160 // 6.5.2 Data Quality and Uncertainty Distribution for Input Data 163 // 6.5.2.1 Probability Distribution of an Individual Variable 163 // 6.5.2.2 Quality Indicators 164 // 6.6 Assessment and Mitigation of Uncertainty 166 // 6.6.1 Semiquantitative Approaches and Expert Judgment 166 // 6.6.1.1 LCA Standardization 166 // 6.6.1.2 Expert Judgment and Default Uncertainty Estimates 169 // 6.6.2 Sensitivity Study 169 // 6.6.2.1 Scenario Analysis 170 // 6.6.3 Model Improvement Strategies 170 // 6.6.3.1 Nonlinear Modeling 170 // 6.6.3.2 Dynamic or Spatialized Modeling 170 // 6.6.4 Monte Carlo Analysis and Taylor Series Expansion in LCA 171 // 6.6.4.1 Monte Carlo 171 // 6.6.4.2 Analytical Uncertainty Propagation Using Taylor Series Expansion 173 // 6.6.5 Application of Monte Carlo and Taylor Series to Case Study 174 // 6.6.6 Comparison to Measurements and Additional Data Collection 178 // 6.7 LCA Software 179 // 6.8 Environmental Evaluation and Socioeconomic Evaluation 180 // 6.8.1 Life Cycle Costing 180 // 6.8.1.1 Introduction 180 // 6.8.1.2 Example: Sewage Sludge Treatment // and Transport 182 // 6.8.2 Cost Internalization 183 // 6.8.3 Cost-Environmental Performance Representation 185 // 6.8.4 Rebound Effect 187 // 6.8.5 Accounting for Social Aspects 188 // Exercises 191 // Chapter 7 Conclusions and Key Points 199 //

7.1 Key Points of a Life Cycle Assessment 199 // 7.1.1 Goal and System Definition 199 // 7.1.2 Inventory 201 // 7.1.3 Impact Assessment 202 // 7.1.4 Interpretation 203 // 7.2 Limitations of an LCA 203 // 7.3 Potential Applications of an LCA 205 // 7.3.1 Overview of LCA Publications 205 // 7.3.2 Application to Ecodesign 206 // 7.3.3 Application to Product Comparisons 206 // 7.3.4 Application to Long-Term Decision-Making 207 // 7.3.5 Application to Different Types of Products 207 // 7.3.6 LCA: A Tool for Life Cycle Thinking 207 // 7.3.7 Example of Life Cycle Management of a // Company 208 // Exercises 210 // Chapter 8 LCA through Example from A to Z: Treating Urban Sewage Sludge 211 - Gregory Houillon, Olivier Jolliet, Shanna Shaked, and Myriam Saade-Sbeih // 8.1 Introduction 211 // 8.1.1 Overview of Case Study Application: Urban Wastewater and Sewage Sludge Treatment 211 // 8.1.1.1 Urban Wastewater Treatment 211 // 8.1.1.2 Urban Sewage Sludge Treatment 212 // 8.1.2 Review of Environmental Assessment of // Wastewater Sludge: Treatments and Key Challenges 212 // 8.2 Goal and Scope Definition 214 // 8.2.1 Objectives 214 // 8.2.2 Functional Unit 214 // 8.2.3 System Definition 214 // 8.2.3.1 Description of Studied Scenarios 214 // 8.2.3.2 System Boundaries and Flow Chart 216 // 8.2.4 System Modeling: Reference Flows, Direct Emissions, Substitutions, and Data Quality 218 // 8.2.4.1 Direct Emissions and Micropollutant // Transfers 219 // 8.2.4.2 Substitutions 219 // 8.2.4.3 Data Sources and Quality 220 // 8.3 Inventory Results 224 // 8.3.1 Intermediary Flows and Detailed Calculation of // the Energy Consumption of the INCI d Scenario 224 // 8.3.2 Overall Inventory Results 225 // 8.4 Impact Assessment 225 // 8.4.1 Energy Consumption 232 // 8.4.2 Global Warming 235 // 8.4.3 Human Toxicity and Ecotoxicity 235 // 8.5 Interpretation and Recommendations 237 //

8.5.1 Reference Scenarios 237 // 8.5.1.1 Agricultural Landspreading of Limed Pasty Sludge 237 // 8.5.1.2 Incineration in Fluidized Bed of Pasty // Sludge 238 // 8.5.1.3 Wet Oxidation of Liquid Sludge 238 // 8.5.1.4 Pyrolysis of Dried Sludge 238 // 8.5.1.5 Incineration of Dried Sludge in Cement Kilns 238 // 8.5.1.6 Landfilling of Limed Pasty Sludge 239 // 8.5.2 Sensitivity Analyses 239 // 8.5.2.1 Transport Distances 239 // 8.5.2.2 Residue Stabilization 239 // 8.5.3 Recommendations and Outlook 240 // Chapter 9 Metacomparison of the Life Cycle Environmental Impacts of Bio-Based Products 243 - Gregory Houillon, Josef Kaenzig, Jinglan Hong, Andrew // Henderson, and Olivier Jolliet // 9.1 Introduction 243 // 9.2 Methods: Meta-Analysis of LCA Studies 245 // 9.2.1 Overview of LCA Studies 245 // 9.2.2 Analysis of Quality and Selection of Studies Analyzed in Detail 246 // 9.2.3 Quantitative Comparison of Various Supply Chains across Studies 246 // 9.2.3.1 (A) Absolute Gain per Hectare of Cultivated Land 248 // 9.2.3.2 (B) Gain Relative to the Substituted Part 249 // 9.3 Results and Discussion 249 // 9.3.1 Comparison of the Environmental Impacts of Bio-Based Products 249 // 9.3.1.1 Comparison across the 10 Categories of Bio-Based Products 249 // 9.3.1.2 Agrimaterials 252 // 9.3.1.3 Biopolymers 253 // 9.3.1.4 Agricultural and Forest Biomass 253 // 9.3.1.5 Biofuels 253 // 9.3.1.6 Other Uses 253 // 9.3.2 Key Parameters and Comparative Metrics 254 // 9.4 Conclusions 254 // 9.4.1 Comparison of Bioproducts 254 // 9.4.2 Plant Resource Supply Chains 256 // 9.4.3 Improvement of LCA Knowledge 257 // 9.4.4 Methodological Outlook 257 // Appendix 1 259 // Appendix II 261 // Appendix III 265 // Appendix IV 271 // Glossary 275 // References 283 // Index 297

(OCoLC)929952659