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Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, c1994

xi, 247 s. ; 24 cm

ISBN 0-691-03471-0 (brož.) ISBN !978-0-691-03471-3 (chyb.)

Bibliografie na s. [231]-238, rejstřík

000019349

Contents // Preface // 1 The Science in Social Science // 1.1 Introduction // 1.1.1 Two Styles of Research, One Logic of Inference // 1.1.2 Defining Scientific Research in Social Sciences // 1.1.3 Science and Complexity // 1.2 Major Components of Research Design // 1.2.1 Improving Research Questions // 1.2.2 Improving Theory // 1.2.3 Improving Data Quality // 1.2.4 Improving the Use of Existing Data // 1.3 Themes of This Volume // 1.3.1 Using Observable Implications to Connect Theory and Data // 1.3.2 Maximizing Leverage // 1.3.3 Reporting Uncertainty // 1.3.4 Thinking like a Social Scientist: Skepticism and Rival Hypotheses // 2 Descriptive Inference // 2.1 General Knowledge and Particular Facts // 2.1.1 "Interpretation" and Inference // 2.1.2 "Uniqueness," Complexity, and Simplification // 2.1.3 Comparative Case Studies // 2.2 Inference: the Scientific Purpose of Data Collection // 2.3 Formal Models of Qualitative Research // 2.4 A Formal Model of Data Collection // 2.5 Summarizing Fhstorical Detail // 2.6 Descriptive Inference // 2.7 Criteria for Judging Descriptive Inferences // 2.7.1 Unbiased Inferences // 271.2 Efficiency // vi • Contents // 3 Causality and Causal Inference 75 // 3.1 Defining Causality 76 // 3.1.1 The Definition and a Quantitative Example 76 // 3.1.2 A Qualitative Example 82 // 3.2 Clarifying Alternative Definitions of Causality 85 // 3.2.1 "Causal Mechanisms" 85 // 3.2.2 "Multiple Causality" 87 // 3.2.3 "Symmetric" and "Asymmetric" Causality 89 // 3.3 Assumptions

Required for Estimating Causal Effects 91 // 3.3.1 Unit Homogeneity 91 // 3.3.2 Conditional Independence 94 // 3.4 Criteria for Judging Causal Inferences 97 // 3.5 Rules for Constructing Causal Theories 99 // 3.5.1 Rule 1: Construct Falsifiable Theories 100 // 3.5.2 Rule 2: Build Theories That Are Internally Consistent 105 // 3.5.3 Rule 3: Select Dependent Variables Carefully 107 // 3.5.4 Rule 4: Maximize Concreteness 109 // 3.5.5 Rule 5: State Theories in as Encompassing Ways // as Feasible 113 // 4 Determining What to Observe 115 // 4.1 Indeterminate Research Designs 118 // 4.1.1 More Inferences than Observations 119 // 4.1.2 Multicollinearity 122 // 4.2 The Limits of Random Selection 124 // 4.3 Selection Bias 128 // 4.3.1 Selection on the Dependent Variable 129 // 4.3.2 Selection on an Explanatory Variable 137 // 4.3.3 Other Types of Selection Bias 138 // 4.4 Intentional Selection of Observations 139 // 4.4.1 Selecting Observations on the Explanatory Variable 140 // 4.4.2 Selecting a Range of Values of the Dependent Variable 141 // 4.4.3 Selecting Observations on Both Explanatory and // Dependent Variables 142 // 4.4.4 Selecting Observations So the Key Causal Variable // Is Constant 146 // 4.4.5 Selecting Observations So the Dependent Variable // Is Constant 147 // 4.5 Concluding Remarks 149 // Contents • vii // 5 Understanding What to Avoid // 5.1 Measurement Error // 5.1.1 Systematic Measurement Error // 5.1.2 Nonsystematic Measurement Error // 5.2 Excluding Relevant Variables:

Bias // 5.2.1 Gauging the Bias from Omitted Variables // 5.2.2 Examples of Omitted Variable Bias // 5.3 Including Irrelevant Variables: Inefficiency // 5.4 Endogeneity // 5.4.1 Correcting Biased Inferences // 5.4.2 Parsing the Dependent Variable // 5.4.5 Transforming Endogeneity into an Omitted Variable Problem // 5.4.4 Selecting Observations to Avoid Endogeneity // 5.4.5 Parsing the Explanatory Variable // 5.5 Assigning Values of the Explanatory Variable // 5.6 Controlling the Research Situation // 5.7 Concluding Remarks // 6 Increasing the Number of Observations // 6.1 Single-Observation Designs for Causal Inference // 6.1.1 "Crucial" Case Studies // 6.1.2 Reasoning by Analogy // 6.2 How Many Observations Are Enough? // 6.3 Making Many Observations from Few // 6.3.1 Same Measures, New Units // 6.3.2 Same Units, New Measures // 6.3.3 New Measures, New Units // 6.4 Concluding Remarks // 150 // 151 // 155 // 157 // 168 // 168 // 176 // 182 // 185 // 187 // 188 // 189 // 191 // 193 // 196 // 199 // 206 // 208 // 209 // 209 // 212 // 213 // 217 // 219 // 223 // 224 // 229 // References // Index // 231 // 239