.

5 (hodnocen1 x )

(5) Půjčeno:5x 

BK

San Diego : Harcourt, Brace & World, c1989

xiv,546 s.

ISBN 0-15-549175-X (brož.)

Obsahuje rejstříky

000054785

Preface// 1 Language Structure and Language Use 1 // LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS 1 What Is Human Language? 1 // Signs and Symbols 3 Languages as Rule-Governed Structures 6 Speech as Rule-Governed Language Use 7 What Is Linguistics? 8 // ANIMAL COMMUNICATION 9 // Communication Among Animals in Their Natural Environment Teaching Human Language to Chimpanzees 11 // LANGUAGE ACQUISITION 14 // FYinciples of Language Acquisition 14 Adult Input in Language Acquisition 16 Stages of Language Acquisition 18 // THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT // MODES OF LINGUISTIC COMMUNICATION 23 Speaking 23 Writing 24 // Signing 25 // Speaking, Writing, Signing: Modes of Linguistic Communication Summary 26 // Exercises 27 // Suggestions for Further Reading 28 References 29 // CONTENTS // Parti LANGUAGE STRUCTURE // Phonetics: The Sounds of Language 32 // SOUNDS AND SPELLINGS 32 // Same Spelling, Different Pronunciations 33 // Same Pronunciation, Different Spellings 33 // PHONETICS 37 // Phonetic Alphabets 37 The Vocal Tract 38 Describing Sounds 40 // SOUNDS 42 Consonants 42 Vowels 47 // Summary 50 Exercises 55 // Suggestions for Further Reading 57 // References 58 // Phonology: The Sound Systems of Language 59 // INTRODUCTION 59 // Phonemes and Allophones 62 // Distribution of Allophones 64 // PHONOLOGICAL RULES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 69 Generalizing Phonological Rules 71 Natural Classes of Sounds 72 Underlying Forms 73 Rule Ordering 73 // SYLLABLE STRUCTURE 76 Summary 79 Exercises 80 // Suggestions for Further Reading 83 // References 83 // Morphology: Structured Meaning in Words 85 // WORDS AND THEIR PARTS 85 Words 86 // What It Means to Know a Word 87 Word-Class Categories (Parts of Speech) 88 // morphemes: the meaning-bearing constituents of // Free and Bound Morphemes 92 Derivational Morphemes 92 Inflectional Morphemes 94 //

LINEAR AND HIERARCHICAL ORGANIZATION OF MORPHEMES IN WORDS 96 Linear Ordering of Morphemes 96 // Hierarchical Ordering of Morphemes 98 // THE ROLE OF MORPHOLOGY IN LANGUAGE 99 Grammatical Functions of Inflectional Morphology 99 Derivational Morphology and Extension of the Vocabulary 105 // ENGLISH MORPHOPHONOLOGY 112 // English Plural, Possessive, and Third Person Singular Morphemes 112 English Past Tense Morpheme 114 // Underlying Phonological Form of Morphemes in the Lexicon 115 Summary 117 // Exercises 118 // Suggestions for Further Reading 123 References 124 // 5 Syntax: Sentences and Their Structure 125 // INTRODUCTION 125 // SENTENCE TYPES 126 Simple Sentences 127 Coordinate Sentences 127 Complex Sentences 128 // TREE DIAGRAMS AND CONSTITUENCY 130 Tree Diagrams 130 // Constituency 132 // MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF SENTENCES: NOUN PHRASES AND VERB PHRASES 137 // PHRASE-STRUCTURE RULES 141 // Rules for Rewriting Noun Phrases 141 Rules for Rewriting Sentences and Verb Phrases 142 Phrase-Structure Rules and Tree Diagrams 143 Refining the Phrase-Structure Rules 144 // GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS: SUBJECT, DIRECT OBJECT, AND OTHERS 145 // SURFACE STRUCTURES AND UNDERLYING STRUCTURES 148 // TRANSFORMATIONS 151 Reflexive Transformation 151 Imperative Transformation 155 // Subject-Auxiliary Inversion and WH-Fronting Transformations 156 Relative Clause Transformation 159 // TYPES OF TRANSFORMATIONS // 162 // vili CONTENTS // CONSTRAINTS ON TRANSFORMATIONS 162 Summary 164 Exercises 165 // Suggestions for Further Reading 169 // References 170 // Semantics: Word Meaning and Sentence Meaning m // THE STUDY OF MEANING 171 Introduction 171 What Is Meaning? 172 // referential, social, and affective meaning 173 // Referential Meaning 174 Social Meaning 174 Affective Meaning 175 // WORD MEANING, SENTENCE MEANING, Meaning of Words and Sentences 176 Meaning of Utterances and Utterance Meaning 178 //

LEXICAL SEMANTICS 179 Lexical Fields 179 Hyponymy 180 Part/Whole Relationships 183 // Synonymy 183 // Antonymy 184 // Converseness 186 Polysemy and Homonymy 187 // Metaphorical Extension 188 // Lexical Semantics: Discovering Relationships in the Lexicon // FUNCTION WORDS AND CATEGORIES OF MEANING Tense and Modality 192 Reference 193 Deixis 193 // SEMANTIC ROLES AND SENTENCE SEMANTICS 199 Semantic Roles and Grammatical Relations 203 Summary 205 Exercises 206 // Suggestions for Further Reading 211 References 212 // Pragmatics: Information Structure 213 // THE ENCODING OF INFORMATION STRUCTURE 213 // CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION STRUCTURE 215 // Given and New Information 216 Topic 217 // Contrast 218 // Definiteness 219 // Referentiality 222 // Categories of Information Structure 223 // PRAGMATIC CATEGORIES AND SYNTAX 224 Fronting 224 // Left-Dislocation 226 // Clefting and Pseudoclefting 227 Sentence Stress 230 // Information-Structure Morphemes 231 Passives 231 // Word Order 233 // Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses 235 // pragmatics: the relationship of sentences TO DISCOURSE 237 Summary 238 // Exercises 239 // Suggestions for Further Reading 243 References 243 // 8 Language Universals and Language Typology 245 // SIMILARITY AND DIVERSITY ACROSS THE LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD 245 The Value of Uncovering Universals 246 Language Types 247 // EXAMPLES OF LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS AND LANGUAGE TYPES 248 Semantic Universals 249 // Phonological Universals 256 Syntactic and Morphological Universals 260 // TYPES OF LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS 266 // Absolute Universals and Universal Tendencies 266 Implicational and Nonimplicational Universals 267 // EXPLANATIONS FOR LANGUAGE UNIVERSALS 267 // Original Language Hypothesis 267 Universals and Perception 268 Acquisition and Processing Explanations 268 Social Explanations 269 // Summary 270 // Exercises 271 // Suggestions for Further Reading 276 // References 276 //

9 The Historical Development of Languages 277 languages: always changing // LANGUAGE FAMILIES 279 // RECONSTRUCTING THE LINGUISTIC PAST 281 Polynesian and Pacific Background 281 Polynesian Languages and Their History 284 Reconstructing the Proto-Polynesian Vocabulary 289 Historical Linguistics and Prehistory 292 // THE LANGUAGE FAMILIES OF THE WORLD 294 Counting Speakers and Languages 294 // The Indo-European Family 296 The Sino-Tibetan Family 302 // The Austronesian Family 302 // The Afroasiatic Family 305 // The Three Major Language Families of Sub-Saharan Africa Other Language Families of Asia and Europe 307 Native American Languages 309 Languages of Aboriginal Australia 311 // Papuan Languages 312 // LANGUAGES IN CONTACT 312 Multilingualism 312 // Artificial Languages 317 Summary 318 Exercises 319 // Suggestions for Further Reading 322 // References 323 // Part II LANGUAGE USE // Speech Acts and Conversation 326 // LANGUAGE IN USE 326 // SENTENCE STRUCTURE AND THE FUNCTION OF UTTERANCES // SPEECH ACTS 328 // Types of Speech Acts 328 Locutions and Illocutions 329 Distinguishing Among Speech Acts 329 // THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE 332 Maxim of Quantity 332 Maxim of Relevance 333 Maxim of Manner 333 // Maxim of Quality 334 // VIOLATIONS OF THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE 334 Indirect Speech Acts 334 Politeness 336 Metaphors 336 // CONTENTS // SPEECH EVENTS 336 // THE ORGANIZATION OF CONVERSATION Tum Taking and Pausing 338 Adjacency Pairs 341 Opening Sequences 344 Closing Sequences 346 Repairs 347 // politeness: an organizational force IN CONVERSATION 349 Positive and Negative Politeness 349 // CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION 350 Summary 351 Exercises 352 // Suggestions for Further Reading 355 References 356 // Writing 358 INTRODUCTION 358 //

THE HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF WRITING 359 The Leap from Pictures to Writing 359 // WRITING SYSTEMS 362 Syllabic Writing 362 // Logographic Writing 368 Alphabetic Writing and Orthography 372 Developing Writing Systems in Newly Literate Societies 374 // SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES 376 Summary 378 // Exercises 378 // Suggestions for Further Reading 380 // References 381 // Dialects: Linguistic Variation Among Social Groups 382 // LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS 382 // Social Boundaries and Dialects 383 Dialects and Registers 383 // DIFFERENTIATION AND MERGER OF LANGUAGE VARIETIES 384 Dialects or Languages? 385 Language Merger in an Indian Village 385 Language/Dialect Continua 387 // REGIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH 388 British and American Varieties 388 Regional Varieties of American English 390 // Structural Differences Across Regional Varieties 3 The Dictionary of American Regional English 399 // SOCIAL VARIETIES 401 // Ethnic Varieties 403 // Socioeconomic Status Varieties 408 Gender Varieties 413 // Age Varieties 416 Summary 416 // Exercises 417 // Suggestions for Further Reading 419 References 420 // Registers: Language Variation in Situations of Use // INTRODUCTION: THE CLOCKS OF BALLYHOUGH // LANGUAGE VARIATION AND MULTILINGUALISM Language Choice in a Multilingual Society 423 // SPEECH SITUATIONS 426 // Elements of the Speech Situation 426 // REGISTERS IN A MONOLINGUAL SOCIETY 428 Markers of Register 430 Lexicon 430 Phonology 432 Syntax 435 Semantics 437 // TWO EXAMPLES OF REGISTER DIFFERENCES 437 Vocabulary 439 Phonology 440 Morphology and Lexicon 440 Syntax 442 Comparing Registers 444 // THE DIMENSIONS OF REGISTER VARIATION 444 Sets of Co-occurring Features 445 Involved Versus Informational Texts 446 Narrative Texts 448 Summary 450 Exercises 451 // Suggestions for Further Reading 454 // References 454 //

The Historical Development of English 456 // A THOUSAND YEARS OF CHANGE IN ENGLISH 456 // THE BACKGROUND OF ENGLISH 458 Historical Background 458 // English as a Germanic Language 459 // PERIODS IN THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH 462 // OLD ENGLISH! 700-1100 462 // Orthography 463 // Phonology 464 // Morphology 465 // Inflections and Word Order 471 // AN OLD ENGLISH NARRATIVE TEXT 472 Lexicon of the Text 472 // Grammar: Syntax and Morphology in the Text 474 Text Structure 474 // MIDDLE ENGLISH: 1100-1500 474 // The Norman Invasion 474 Lexicon 475 Phonology 476 // Morphology 476 Syntax 478 // A MIDDLE ENGLISH TRAVEL FABLE 479 Lexicon 479 Morphology 479 // Syntax 481 // MODERN ENGLISH: 1500-PRESENT 481 Early and Late Modem English 482 Phonology: The English Vowel Shift 482 Morphology 482 // Syntax 484 // Lexicon 485 // Summary 486 Exercises 486 // Suggestions for Further Reading 488 // References 489 // 15 Language Standards and Language Attitudes 491 // INTRODUCTION 491 // Views of the Origin of Language 491 // Views of Language Diversity: From Babel to Babble 492 // THE STATUS OF LANGUAGE VARIETIES 493 // Languages as International Vehicles of Communication 493 Official and National Languages 494 Regional and Minority Languages 495 Languages of Limited Function 495 // Social Equality and Inequality in First Language Acquisition 496 // XIV CONTENTS // STANDARD VARIETIES AND THE PROCESS OF STANDARDIZATION 496 What Is a Standard Variety? 496 Who Sets Standards? 497 Description and Prescription: A Case History 499 What the Regulatory Agencies Prescribe and Proscribe 503 Does a Standard American English Exist? 505 // ATTITUDES TOWARD LANGUAGE VARIETIES 506 // Using Guises and Disguises to Uncover Language Attitudes 507 The Persistence of Stigmatized Dialects 510 Attitudes and Second-Language Learning 511 //

IDEAL LANGUAGES 512 // Clear Communication Versus Efficient Communication 512 Gender Studies and Ideal Varieties 514 Summary 517 // Exercises 518 // Suggestions for Further Reading 520 // References 521 // Glossary 523 // Index 535 // Language Index 545