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London ; New York : Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2017

xlii, 765 stran : ilustrace ; 23 cm

ISBN 978-1-932364-96-5 (brožováno)

"First published 2011 by American Planning Association"--Rub titulního listu

Obsahuje bibliografii na stranách 709-739, bibliografické odkazy a rejstřík

001481210

Contents // Acknowledgements xvii // Preface: A Progress Report on Parking Reforms xix // 1. Set the Right Price for Curb Parking xx // 2. Return Parking Revenue to Pay for Local Public Services xxviii // 3. Remove Minimum Parking Requirements xxxi // A Quiet Revolution in Parking Policies xxxvii // 1. The Twenty-First Century Parking Problem 1 // The Car Explosion 4 // The "Commons" Problem 7 // Skewed Travel Choices 9 // Cures That Kill 9 // The Twenty-First Century Parking Solution 13 // Part I: Planning for Free Parking 19 // 2. Unnatural Selection 21 // The Genesis of Parking Requirements 21 // Huddled Masses Yearning to Park Free 22 // Planning without Prices 23 // Planning without Theory 25 // First Strategy: Copy Other Cities 27 // Second Strategy: Consult ITE Data 31 // Five Easy Reforms 64 // Conclusion: The Immaculate Conception of Parking Demand 65 // 3. The Pseudoscience of Planning for Parking 75 // Three-Step Process 75 // Circular Logic 84 // Estimating Demand without Prices 87 // Professional Confidence Trick 88 // Planners in Denial 89 // Parochial Policies 92 // Mobility versus Proximity 93 // Systemwide Effects of Parking Requirements 94 // Parking Spaces Required for a Change of Land Use 97 // Quantity versus Quality 101 // Conclusion: An Elaborate Structure with No Foundation 111 // 4. An Analogy: Ancient Astronomy 119 // A Parallel Universe 120 // The Muddle Is the Message 121 // 5. A Great Planning Disaster 127 // Bundled Parking and the Decision to Drive

128 // Distorted Urban Form 129 // Degraded Urban Design 136 // Higher Housing Costs 141 // Paralysis by Parking Requirements 153 // Limits on Homeownership 157 // Damage to the Urban Economy 157 // Harm to the Central Business District 158 // Harm to Low-Income Families 165 // Price Discrimination 167 // Prices and Preferences 169 // Precedent Coagulates into Tradition 171 // An Analogy: Bloodletting 173 // Conclusion: First, Do No Harm 175 // 6. The Cost of Required Parking Spaces 185 // How Much Does a Parking Space Cost? 185 // Monthly Cost of a Parking Space 191 // External Costs of a Parking Space 194 // Conclusion: The High Cost of Required Parking Spaces 200 // 7. Putting the Cost of Free Parking in Perspective 205 // Total Subsidy for Parking 205 // Capital Cost of the Parking Supply 208 // New Parking Spaces Compared with New Cars 210 // Free Parking Compared with the Cost of Driving to Work 211 // Parking Subsidies Compared with Congestion Tolls 215 // Simple Arithmetic 217 // Conclusion: A Great Planning Disaster 218 // 8. An Allegory: Minimum Telephone Requirements 225 // 9. Public Parking in Lieu of Private Parking 229 // Benefits of In-Lieu Fees 231 // Concerns about In-Lieu Fees 232 // How Do Cities Set the In-Lieu Fees? 233 // Why Pay the Fee rather than Provide the Parking? 236 // The Impact Fees Implicit in Parking Requirements 237 // Conclusion: The High Cost of Parking Requirements 246 // 10. Reduce Demand Rather than Increase Supply 251 // Transit Passes

in Lieu of Parking Spaces 251 // Parking Cash Out in Lieu of Parking Spaces 262 // Car Sharing 266 // Policies Appropriate to Their Locations 267 // Conclusion: Offer the Option to Reduce Parking Demand 267 // vi The High Cost of Free Parking // Part ?: Cruising for Parking 273 // 11. Cruising 275 // Cruising through the Twentieth Century 276 // Detroit 279 // Washington, D.C 280 // New Haven and Waterbury 281 // London 281 // Paris 283 // Freiburg 283 // Jerusalem and Haifa 283 // Cambridge 284 // Cape Town 284 // New York 285 // San Francisco 288 // Sydney 289 // Cruising without Parking 289 // Conclusion: A Century of Cruising 290 // 12. The Right Price for Curb Parking 295 // Is Curb Parking a Public Good? 296 // Time Limits 296 // The Right Price 297 // External Costs of Curb Parking 303 // Demand-Responsive Prices 304 // Can Prices Manage Curb Parking Demand? 307 // Two Later Observations 314 // Conclusion: Charge the Right Price for Curb Parking 315 // 13. Choosing to Cruise 321 // To Cruise or to Pay 321 // Equilibrium Search Time: An Example 323 // The Wages of Cruising 324 // Rent Seeking 329 // Two Pricing Strategies 330 // Elasticities 331 // A Numerical Example 333 // Complications 335 // Is Cruising Rational? 339 // The Role of Information 340 // Conclusion: An Invitation to Cruise 342 // 14. California Cruising 347 // Park-and-Visit Tests in Westwood Village 348 // Cheaper Curb Parking Creates More Cruising 350 // Cruising for a Year 351 // Side Effects of Cruising

361 // Solo Drivers More Likely to Cruise 362 // Market Prices Can Attract More People 363 // Wages of Cruising in Westwood Village 367 // Perception versus Reality 367 // Turning Wasted Time into Public Revenue 369 // Conclusion: The High Cost of Cruising 369 // Part III. Cashing in on Curb Parking 377 // 15. Buying Time at the Curb 379 // First Parking Meter 380 // The Technology of Charging for Curb Parking 382 // Not Technology but Politics 390 // Conclusion: Honk if You Support Paid Parking 392 // 16. Turning Small Change into Big Changes 397 // Parking Benefit Districts 397 // A Logical Recipient: Business Improvement Districts 401 // Pasadena: Your Meter Money Makes a Difference 403 // San Diego: Turning Small Change into Big Changes 418 // Conclusion: Cash Registers at the Curb 427 // 17. Taxing Foreigners Living Abroad 433 // A Market in Curb Parking 434 // Residential Parking Benefit Districts 435 // Benefits of Parking Benefit Districts 453 // Conclusion: Changing the Politics of Curb Parking 464 // 18. Let Prices Do the Planning 471 // Space, Time, Money, and Parking 471 // The Optimal Parking Space 473 // Greed versus Sloth 474 // Parking Duration and Vehicle Occupancy 475 // The Invisible Hand 479 // Classic Monocentric Models 480 // Efficiency 483 // Practicality 484 // Enforcement 486 // Banning Curb Parking 489 // Where Would Jesus Park? 494 // Removing Off-Street Parking Requirements 495 // Conclusion: Prices Can Do the Planning 499 // viii The High Cost of Free

Parking // 19. The Ideal Source of Local Public Revenue 5U5 // Henry George’s Proposal 505 // Curb Parking Revenue Is Public Land Rent 508 // Parking Requirements Act Like a Tax on Buildings 509 // What Would Adam Smith Say about Charging for Parking? 512 // Revenue Potential of Curb Parking 513 // Division of Curb Parking Revenue 519 // Similarity to Special Assessments 522 // Property Values 523 // An Analogy: Congestion Pricing 523 // Appropriate Public Claimants 527 // Parking Increment Finance 528 // Equity 530 // Opportunity Cost of Curb Parking 539 // Economic Development 540 // Monopoly Free Parking, and Henry George 543 // Conclusion: The Revenue Is under Our Cars 547 // 20. Unbundled Parking 559 // Parking Costs Unbundled from Housing Costs 560 // Parking Caps or Parking Prices 568 // Effects of Unbundling on VMT and Vehicle Emissions 569 // Objections to Unbundling 572 // Conclusion: The High Cost of Bundled Parking 575 // 21. Time for a Paradigm Shift 579 // Parking Requirements as a Paradigm 580 // Retrofitting America 582 // An Illustration: Advising the Mayor 583 // A New Style of Planning 584 // Part TV: Conclusion 587 // 22. Changing the Future 589 // Curb Parking as a Commons Problem 590 // Enormous Parking Subsidies 591 // Unintended Consequences 592 // Enclosing the Commons 594 // Public Property, Not Private Property 595 // Commons, Anti commons, and the Liberal Commons 596 // Public Property, but without Open Access 599 // Other Commons Problems 600 // Two

Futures 601 // Three Reforms 602 // IX // Appendix A: The Practice of Parking Requirements 607 // Three Steps in Setting a Parking Requirement 608 // 662 Land Uses 609 // 216 Bases 610 // Convergence to the Golden Rule 612 // Parking Requirements and Regional Culture 614 // Parking Requirements and Parking Technology 614 // What Went Wrong? 617 // Appendix B: Nationwide Transportation Surveys 621 // Drivers Park Free for 99 Percent of All Automobile Trips 621 // Cars Are Parked 95 Percent of the Time 624 // Appendix C: The Language of Parking 627 // Appendix D: The Calculus of Driving, Parking, and Walking 631 // Elasticities 633 // Complications 633 // The Price of Time 635 // Appendix E: The Price of Land and the Cost of Parking 643 // Break-Even Land Values 643 // Land Banks 645 // Cost of Complying with Parking Requirements 646 // Appendix F: People, Parking, and Cities 649 // Share of Land in Streets and Parking 650 // People and Land: Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco 653 // Appendix G: Converting Traffic Congestion into Cash 659 // Use of the Toll Revenue 664 // Estimates of the Toll Revenue 666 // Income Distribution and Political Support 668 // Appendix H: The Vehicles of Nations 673 // Afterword: Twenty-First Century Parking Reforms 683 // 1. Set the Right Price for Curb Parking 683 // 2. Return Parking Revenue to Pay for Local Public Services 693 // 3. Remove Minimum Parking Requirements 698 // Conclusion 705 // References 709 // Index 741 // x The High Cost

of Free Parking // Tables // 2-1. Peak Parking Occupancy and Minimum Parking Requirements 36 // 2- 2. Parking Turnover Rates 55 // 3- 1. Selected Land Uses that Have Parking Requirements 76 // 3-2. Selected Bases for Parking Requirements 77 // 3-3. Parking Requirements for the Afterlife 79 // 3-4. Pataphysical Parking Requirements 80 // 3-5. Parking Spaces Required When a Building’s Use Changes 99 // 5-1. An Example of How Parking Requirements Reduce Floor // Area Ratios 134 // 5-2. Effects of Introducing a Parking Requirement for Apartments // (Oakland, California) 144 // 5-3. Effects of Reducing tlie Parking Requirement for Office Buildings // (Southern California) 147 // 5-4. Required Parking Increases the Cost of Housing (Weybum // Terrace Apartment Project at UCLA) 149 // 5-5. Required Parking Increases the Cost of SRO Housing (Alma // Place in Pedo Alto, California) 151 // 5-6. Parking in the CBD 163 // 5- 7. Land, Jobs, and Parking in Three CBDs 164 // 6- 1. Cost per Parking Space Added by 15 Parking Structures 187 // 6-2. Cost of Aboveground and Underground Parking Structures 189 // 6-3. Monthly Cost of a Parking Space 191 // 6-4. Debt Service for Parking Structure 7 193 // 6- 5. External Costs of a Parking Space 195 // 7- 1. Annual Capital and Operating Cost of Off-Street Parking Spaces 206 // 7-2. Capital Value of Vehicles and Roads in the United States, // 1990-1997 208 // 7-3. Cost of New Parking Spaces at UCLA Compared with the // Price of New Cars 211 // 7-4. Parking

Subsidies Compared with Commuting Costs 213 // 9-1. Surveyed Cities with In-Lieu Fees 230 // 9-2. Parking Impact Fees for Office Buildings in 1996 239 // 9-3. Parking Impact Fees for Land Uses with Highest Parking // Requirements in 1996 242 // 9- 4. Parking Impact Fees for Office Buildings in U.S. Cities in 2002 244 // 10- 1. Eco Pass Price Schedule, Santa Clara Valley Transportation // Authority 252 // 10-2. Cost-Effectiveness of Eco Passes (Silicon Valley) 254 // 10-3. Parking Cash Out Reduces Parking Demand 264 // 10- 4. Cost-Effectiveness of Parking Cash Out 265 // 11- 1. Cruising in Detroit 280 // 11-2. Driving, Cruising, and Walking Times for Six-Mile Irips // in Washington, D.C. 281 // 11-3. Cruising in New Haven and Waterbury, Connecticut 282 // 11-4. Cruising Manhattan 288 // 11- 5. Twentieth-Century Cruising 290 // 12- 1. Hypothetical Fee Rates for Parking Meters 300 // 12-2. Park-and-Visit Times before and after Parking Prices Increased // in London 3 9 // 12-3. Park-and-Visit Times before and after Parking Prices // Quadrupled in London 311 // 12- 4. Park-and-Visit Times in London in 1983 314 // 13- 1. The Wages of Cruising in Southern California 326 // 13-2. The Wages of Cruising at City Hall 328 // 13- 3. Equilibrium Search Time 332 // 134. Cruising as a Function of the Price of Curb Parking 336 // 14- 1. Search Time for Curb Parking in Westwood Village 350 // 14-2. A Day of Cruising in Westwood Village 352 // 14-3. Curb Space Occupancy Rates, Search Times, and

Share of // Traffic Cruising 359 // 14-4. Vehicle Occupancy Rates for Curb and Off-Street Parkers 363 // 14-5. Distribution of Curb Parking Durations 364 // 14-6. Curb Parking Prices, Occupancy, Turnover, and Arrival Rates 366 // 14-7. The Economic Reward for Cruising 367 // 16-1. Old Pasadena Parking Meter Revenues and Expenditures // for FY 2001 407 // 16-2. Old Pasadena Parking Structure Fund for FY 2001 411 // 16-3. Parking Meter District Revenues in San Diego 419 // 18- 1. Comparing the Monocentric Models of Housing and Parking 481 // 19- 1. Prices for Curb Parking Compared with Taxes on Land Values 509 // 19- 2. Local Effects of Shifting SI Million from Private Consumption // to Public Investment 342 // 20- 1. Unbundling Reduces Apartment Rents and Increases Parking // Rents 561 // 20- 2. Unbundling Reduces Vehicle Travel 370 // 21- 1. Parking Requirements or Benefit Districts? Comparing Results 585 // A-l. 216 Factors Used as Bases for Minimum Parking Requirements 611 // A-2. Convergence toward the Golden Rule: 1975-1993 613 // A-3. 110 Additional Land Uses with Parking Requirements in // Southern California 6*3 // ?-L Share of Vehicle Trips with Free Parking 622 // C-l. 78 Varieties of Parking 630 // D-l. Elasticity of Optimal Walking Distance 634 // D-2. Estimates of the Value of Saving Walking Time 640 // xii The High Cost of Free Parking // E-1. Land Value Implied by the Cost per Parking Space Added 644 // E-2. Required Parking Increases the Cost of Office Space 646

// F-l. Population Density and the Area of Land in Streets 651 // F-2. Population Densities of Los Angeles, New York, and // San Francisco 654 // G-l. Density, Speed, Flow, Time, Cost, and the Demand for Freeway // Travel 660 // G-2. Solo Driving with and without Congestion Tolls 663 // G-3. Carpooling with and without Congestion Tolls 663 // G-4. Per Capita Incomes of Cities in Los Angeles County 665 // H-l. Vehicle Ownership Rates in the U.S. and the World, 1900-2000 674 // H-2. National Vehicle Ownership Rates in 2000 678 // H-3. Vehicle Ownership Rates in the United States and the World, // 1950-2000 680 // AF-1 Revenue Lost in Alexandria As Result of Meter Exemption // for Disabled Placards ($/year) 692 // Figures // P-1. Performance Prices Create Open Spaces on Every Block xxii // P-2. Occupancy Sensor xxiv // P-3. Variable parking prices xxiv // P-4. Parking Is Well Used but Readily Available xxv // P-5. Smart Meter xxvi // P-6 Office Building in Los Angeles Converted to Residential Use // Without Adding On-site Parking Spaces xxxiv // P-7. San Jose’s Minimum Parking Requirements xxxiv // P-8. Parking Lots in Silicon Valley before and after Liner Buildings xxxv // P-8. Liner Building xxxvi // 1-1. Vehicle Ownership Rates: The United States from 1900 to 2000 // and 15 Other Countries in 2000 5 // 1-2. Number of Motor Vehicles on Earth 6 // 1- 3. Parking Is Desirable, but You Can Have Too Much of a Good // Thing 14 // 2- 1. ITE Parking Generation Rate for a Fast-Food Restaurant

with // Drive-In Window (Second Edition of Parking Generation, 1987) 33 // 2-2. ITE Parking Generation Rate for a Nonconvention Hotel // (Second Edition of Parking Generation, 1987) 39 // 2-3. Cumulative Distribution of Parking Generation for a General // Office Building of 100,000-299,000 Gross Square Feet 40 // 2-4. ITE Parking Generation Rate for a Fast-Food Restaurant with // Drive-Through Window (Third Edition of Parking Generation, 2004) 42 2-5. ITE Trip Generation Rate for a Fast-Food Restaurant with // Drive-Through Window (Fourth Edition of Trip Generation, 1987) 44 // 2-6. ITE Trip Generation Rate for a Fast-Food Restaurant with // Drive-Through Window (Fifth Edition of Trip Generation, 1991) 48 // xiii // 2-7. ITE Trip Generation Rate for a Fast-Food Restaurant with // Drive-Through Window (Sixth Edition of Trip Generation, 1997) 50 // 2-8. ITE Trip Generation Rate for a Fast-Food Restaurant with // Drive-Through Window and No Indoor Seating (Seventh Edition of Trip Generation, 2003) 51 // 2- 9. Six-Step Process of Planning for Free Parking 58 // 3- 1. A Möbius Strip with Ants 87 // 3-2. Voluntarily Provided Parking Spaces as a Function of the // Cost per Space 96 // 3-3. Carmel, California, Requires that Garage Doors Do Not Exceed // One Car Width 104 // 3-4. How Parking Lot Placement Can Influence the Pedestrian // Quality of Streets 106 // 3- 5. Parking Structures with Ground-Floor Uses 110 // 4- 1. Ptolemy’s Model of Planetary Motion 120 // 5- 1. Off-Street Parking

Requirements Accelerate Urban Sprawl 129 // 5-2. Plan of Downtown Albuquerque, New Mexico 132 // 5-3. Street Scene in San Francisco 137 // 5-4. 1100 Wilshire Boulevard: 21 Floors of Offices above 15 Levels // of Parking 138 // 5-5. From Porchscape to Garagescape 140 // 5-6. Dingbats 142 // 5- 7. Venesection Manikin, Sixteenth Century 174 // 6- 1. Cost per Parking Space Added 188 // 9-1. Parking Requirements, In-Lieu Fees, and Parking Impact Fees // (for office buildings) 241 // 9-2. Parking Requirements, In-Lieu Fees, and Parking Impact Fees // (for land uses with the highest parking requirements) 244 // 12-1. The Market Price of Curb Parking 298 // 12-2. Parking Prices, Occupancy, and Revenue 302 // 12-3. Distribution of New Parking Meter Charges in London Parking // Zones, May 1965 308 // 12- 4. Grosvenor Square 312 // 13- 1. The Price of Parking in Southern California 327 // 13-2. The Price of Parking at City Hall 329 // 13-3. Curb Price Elasticity of Search Time 333 // 13- 4. Results of Changing the Price of Curb Parking 337 // 14- 1. Westwood Village 349 // 14- 2. Curb Parking Prices and Cruising 356 // 15- 1. Patent for the Parking Meter 381 // 15-2. Pay-and-Display Meter 384 // 15- 3. Pay-by-Space Meter 386 // 154. In-Vehicle Meter 387 // 16- 1. Urban Renewal in Old Pasadena 404 // xiv The High Cost of Free Parking // 16-2. Pasadena Parking Meter 408 // 16-3. Building before Adaptive Reuse (Old Pasadena) 409 // 16-4. Pasadena Retail Sales Tax Revenue 413 // 16-5. Sidewalks

and Alleys of Westwood and Old Pasadena Compared 416 // 16-6. Uptown Partnership Logo 421 // 16-7. Diagonal Parking in the Uptown District 421 // 16-8. Uptown Information Kiosk 421 // 16-9. Wayfinding Signs 423 // 16- 10. Public Parking Garage in the Gaslamp Quarter 424 // 17- 1. Residents Charging for Off-Street Parking at the 1984 Olympics 436 // 17-2. Broken Sidewalks in a Los Angeles Parking Permit District 454 // 17- 3. Garage Retrofitted into a Historic House in St. Andrews, Scotland 459 // 18- 1. The Cost of Parking and Walking (for a solo driver who parks // four hours) 475 // 18-7. Parking Duration and Vehicle Occupancy Affect Optimal // Parking Location 476 // 18-3. The Cost of Parking and Walking (for a two-person carpool that // parks four hours) 477 // 18-4. The Cost of Parking and Walking (for a two-person carpool that // parks eight hours) 478 // 18-5. Parking Prices in Los Angeles CBD 485 // 18-6. Barriers in Milan, Italy, Used to Prevent Cars from Parking on // the Sidewalks 489 // 19-1. Illustration for Henry George’s Single Tax 507 // 19-2. The Wig Seller  514 // 19-3. Cars Parked Free at the Curb outside the Brimmer Street Garage // ir. Boston 516 // 19-4. Distribution of Curb Parking Revenue 520 // 19-5. Sidewalks and Street Trees in Palo Alte 540 // 19- 6. Patent Applications for the Landlord’s Game and Monopoly 544 // 20- 1. Demand for Unbundled Parking 565 // ?-l. Automated Parking Garage in Hoboken, New Jersey 616 // D-l. Elasticity as a Function of Distance

634 // F-l. Population Density of Urbanized Areas 656 // G-l. Cities’ Shares of Population, Income, and Toll Revenue 669 // H-l. People and Vehicles in the U.S. 677 // H-2. People and Vehicles outside the U.S. 677 // AF-1. All Must Pay in Arlington 690 // AF-2. Event Parking District in Eugene, Parking Fines Double Sign 694 // AF-3. Curb parking space converted into an outdoor café // in Mountain View 700 // AF-4. Customer Parking Lot Converted into Paid Parking Lot // in San Diego 701 // AF-5. Solar Parking Lot in Los Angeles 703