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BK

Eighth edition

New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2019]

xx, 572 stran : barevné ilustrace ; 28 cm

ISBN 978-1-260-08515-0 (brožováno)

Terminologický slovník

Obsahuje bibliografické odkazy a rejstřík

001484557

Life in Water // 44 // Preface xiii // chapter Introduction to Ecology: // Historical Foundations and Developing Frontiers 1 // Concepts 1 // 1.1 Overview of Ecology 2 Concept 1.1 Review 3 // 1.2 Sampling Ecological Research 3 // The Ecology of Forest Birds: Old Tools and New 4 Forest Canopy Research: A Physical and Scientific Frontier 6 // Climatic and Ecological Change: Past and Future 7 Concept 1.2 Review 8 // Applications: Ecology Can Inform Environmental Law and Policy 9 // Section 1 // NATURAL HISTORY AND EVOLUTION Chapter 2 Life on Land 11 // Concepts 11 // Terrestrial Biomes and the Importance of Plants 12 // 2.1 Large-Scale Patterns of Climatic Variation 14 Temperature, Atmospheric Circulation, and Precipitation 14 Climate Diagrams 16 // Concept 2.1 Review 16 // 2.2 Other Factors That Shape Terrestrial Biomes 17 // Concept 2.2 Revie w 19 // 2.3 Natural History and Geography of Biomes 19 Tropical Rain Forest 19 // Tropical Dry Forest 21 Tropical Savanna 23 Desert 25 // Woodland and Shrubland 27 Temperate Grassland 29 Temperate Forest 31 Boreal Forest 32 Tundra 35 // Mountains: A Diversity of Biomes 37 // Concept 2.3 Review 40 // Applications: Finer Scale Climatic Variation Over Time and Space 40 // Concepts 44 // Aquatic Biomes and How They Differ 45 // 3.1 Water Cycling 47 // The Hydrologic Cycle 47 // The Effects of Wind and Temperature 47 // Concept 3.1 Review 48 // 3.2 The Natural History of Aquatic Environments 49 The Oceans 49 // Life in Shallow Marine Waters: Kelp

Forests and Coral Gardens 54 // Marine Shores: Life Between High and Low Tides 57 Transitional Environments: Estuaries, Salt Marshes, Mangrove Forests, and Freshwater Wetlands 59 Rivers and Streams: Life Blood and Pulse of the Land 64 // Lakes: Small Seas 69 Concept 3.2 Review 73 // Applications: Biological Integrity-Assessing the Health of Aquatic Systems 73 Number of Species and Species Composition 74 Trophic Composition 74 Fish Abundance and Condition 74 A Test 74 // chapter A Population Genetics and Natural Selection 78 // Concepts 78 // 4.1 Variation Within Populations 81 Variation in a Widely Distributed Plant 81 Variation in Alpine Fish Populations 83 Concept 4.1 Review 84 // 4.2 Hardy-Weinberg Principle 84 Calculating Gene Frequencies 84 Concept 4.2 Review 86 // 4.3 The Process of Natural Selection 87 Stabilizing Selection 87 Directional Selection 87 Disruptive Selection 88 // Concept 4.3 Review 88 // 4.4 Evolution by Natural Selection 88 Heritability: Essential for Evolution 89 Directional Selection: Adaptation by Soapberry Bugs to // New Host Plants 90 Concept 4.4 Review 92 // vi // Contents // vii // 4.5 Change Due to Chance 92 // Evidence of Genetic Drift in Island Crickets 93 Genetic Diversity and Butterfly Extinctions 95 Concept 4.5 Review 96 // Applications: Evolution and Agriculture 96 // Evolution of Herbicide Resistance in Weeds 97 // Section II // ADAPTATIONS TO THE ENVIRONMENT chapterS Temperature Relations 101 // Concepts 101 // 5.1 Microclimates 102 Altitude

102 Aspect 103 Vegetation 103 // Color of the Ground 103 // Presence of Boulders and Burrows 104 < // Aquatic Temperatures 104 Concept 5.1 Review 105 // 5.2 Evolutionary Trade-Offs 105 The Principle of Allocation 106 Concept 5.2 Review 106 // 5.3 Temperature and Performance of Organisms 107 Extreme Temperatures and Photosynthesis 108 Temperature and Microbial Activity 109 // Concept 5.3 Review 110 // 5.4 Regulating Body Temperature 110 Balancing Heat Gain Against Heat Loss 110 Temperature Regulation by Plants 111 Temperature Regulation by Ectothermic Animals 113 Temperature Regulation by Endothermic Animals 115 Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Plants 119 Concept 5.4 Review 120 // 5.5 Surviving Extreme Temperatures 120 Inactivity 120 // Reducing Metabolic Rate 121 Hibernation by a Tropical Species 121 Concept 5.5 Review 121 // Applications: Local Extinction of a Land Snail in an Urban Heat Island 123 // chapter 6 Water Relations 127 // Concepts 127 // 6.1 Water Availability 129 Water Content of Air 129 // Water Movement in Aquatic Environments 130 Water Movement Between Soils and Plants 131 Concept 6.1 Review 132 // 6.2 Water Regulation on Land 133 Water Acquisition by Animals 133 // Water Acquisition by Plants 135 Water Conservation by Plants and Animals 136 Dissimilar Organisms with Similar Approaches to Desert Life 139 // Two Arthropods with Opposite Approaches to Desert Life 141 // Concept 6.2 Review 143 // 6.3 Water and Salt Balance in Aquatic Environments 143 Marine

Fish and Invertebrates 143 Freshwater Fish and Invertebrates 145 Concept 6.3 Review 146 // Applications: Using Stable Isotopes to Study Water Uptake by Plants 146 // Stable Isotope Analysis 146 Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Plant Water Sources 147 // chapter 7 Energy and Nutrient Relations 149 // Concepts 149 // 7.1 Photosynthetic Autotrophs 150 The Solar-Powered Biosphere 150 Concept 7.1 Review 154 // 7.2 Chemosynthetic Autotrophs 154 Concept 7.2 Review 156 // 7.3 Heterotrophs 156 // Chemical Composition and Nutrient Requirements 156 Concept 7.3 Review 162 // 7.4 Energy Limitation 162 // Photon Flux and Photosynthetic Response Curves 162 Food Density and Animal Functional Response 164 Concept 7.4 Review 165 // 7.5 Optimal Foraging Theory 165 Testing Optimal Foraging Theory 165 Optimal Foraging by Plants 166 Concept 7.5 Review 168 // Applications: Bioremediation-Using the Trophic Diversity of Bacteria to Solve Environmental Problems 168 // Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 168 Cyanide and Nitrates in Mine Spoils 169 // chapter 8 Social Relations 172 Concepts 172 // 8.1 Mate Choice versus Predation 174 // Mate Choice and Sexual Selection in Guppies 175 Concept 8.1 Review 178 // 8.2 Mate Choice and Resource Provisioning 178 // Concept 8.2 Review 181 // 8.3 Nonrandom Mating in a Plant Population 181 Concept 8.3 Review 183 // 8.4 Sociality 183 Cooperative Breeders 184 Concept 8.4 Review 188 // vili // Contents // 8.5 Eusociality 189 Eusocial Species 189 Evolution of Eusociality

191 Concept 8.5 Review 192 // Applications: Behavioral Ecology and Conservation 193 Tinbergen’s Framework 193 Environmental Enrichment and Development of Behavior 193 // Section III // POPULATION ECOLOGY___ // chapter ’ Population Distribution and Abundance 196 Concepts 196 // 9.1 Distribution Limits 198 // Kangaroo Distributions and Climate 198 A Tiger Beetle of Cold Climates 199 Distributions of Plants Along a Moisture-Temperature Gradient 200 // Distributions of Barnacles Along an Intertidal Exposure Gradient 201 Concept 9.1 Review 202 // 9.2 Patterns on Small Scales 202 // Scale, Distributions, and Mechanisms 203 Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies 203 Distributions of Desert Shrubs 204 Concept 9.2 Review 206 // 9.3 Patterns on Large Scales 206 // Bird Populations Across North America 206 Plant Distributions Along Moisture Gradients 207 Concept 9.3 Review 208 // 9.4 Organism Size and Population Density 209 Animal Size and Population Density 209 Plant Size and Population Density 209 Concept 9.4 Review 210 // Applications: Rarity and Vulnerability to Extinction 211 Seven Forms of Rarity and One of Abundance 211 // chapter Population Dynamics 215 // Concepts 215 // 10.1 Dispersal 217 // Dispersal of Expanding Populations 217 Range Changes in Response to Climate Change 218 Dispersal in Response to Changing Food Supply 219 Dispersal in Rivers and Streams 220 Concept 10.1 Review 221 // 10.2 Metapopulations 221 // A Metapopulation of an Alpine Butterfly 222 Dispersal Within

a Metapopulation of Lesser Kestrels 223 Concept 10.2 Review 224 // 10.3 Patterns of Survival 224 Estimating Patterns of Survival 224 Fligh Survival Among the Young 224 Constant Rates of Survival 226 // High Mortality Among the Young 227 Three Types of Survivorship Curves 227 Concept 10.3 Review 228 // 10.4 Age Distribution 228 Contrasting Tree Populations 228 // A Dynamic Population in a Variable Climate 229 Concept 10.4 Review 230 // 10.5 Rates of Population Change 230 Estimating Rates for an Annual Plant 230 Estimating Rates When Generations Overlap 231 Concept 10.5 Review 233 // Applications: Changes in Species Distributions in Response to Climate Warming 233 // chapter Population Growth 237 // Concepts 237 // 11.1 Geometric and Exponential Population Growth 238 Geometric Growth 238 // Exponential Growth 239 Exponential Growth in Nature 240 Concept 11.1 Review 241 // 11.2 Logistic Population Growth 242 Concept 11.2 Review 244 // 11.3 Limits to Population Growth 244 Environment and Birth and Death Among Darwin’s // Finches 245 Concept 11.3 Review 24 7 // Applications: The Human Population 247 Distribution and Abundance 248 Population Dynamics 249 Population Growth 250 // Chapter Life Histories 253 // Concepts 253 // 12.1 Offspring Number versus Size 254 Egg Size and Number in Fish 255 Seed Size and Number in Plants 257 Seed Size and Seedling Performance 258 Concept 12.1 Review 260 // 12.2 Adult Survival and Reproductive Allocation 261 Life History Variation Among Species 261

// Life History Variation within Species 263 Concept 12.2 Review 265 // 12.3 Life History Classification 265 r and ? Selection 265 // Plant Life Histories 266 Opportunistic, Equilibrium, and Periodic Life Histories 267 // Contents // ix // Lifetime Reproductive Effort and Relative Offspring Size: Two Central Variables? 269 Concept 12.3 Review 271 // Applications: Climate Change and Timing of Reproduction and Migration 271 Altered Plant Phenology 271 Animal Phenology 272 // INTERACTIONS___~ // chapter 3 Species Interactions and Competition 275 // Concepts 275 // Competitive Interactions Are Diverse 277 // 13.1 Intraspecific Competition 278 Intraspecific Competition Among Plants 278 Intraspecific Competition Among Planthoppers 279 Interference Competition Among Terrestrial // Isopods 280 Concept 13.1 Review 280 // 13.2 Competitive Exclusion and Niches 280 The Feeding Niches of Darwin’s Finches 281 Competition for Caterpillars 282 // Concept 13.2 Review 283 // 13.3 Mathematical and Laboratory Models 283 Modeling Interspecific Competition 284 Laboratory Models of Competition 285 Concept 13.3 Review 287 // 13.4 Competition and Niches 287 // Niches and Competition Among Plants 287 Niche Overlap and Competition Between Barnacles 288 // Competition and the Habitat of a Salt Marsh Grass 288 // Competition and the Niches of Small Rodents 289 Character Displacement 291 Evidence for Competition in Nature 293 Concept 13.4 Review 293 // Applications: Competition Between Native and Invasive

Species 294 // 14.2 Dynamics 302 // Cycles of Abundance in Snowshoe Hares and Their Predators 302 // Experimental Test of Food and Predation Impacts 304 Population Cycles in Mathematical and Laboratory Models 305 Concept 14.2 Review 308 // 14.3 Refuges 308 // Refuges and Host Persistence in Laboratory and Mathematical Models 308 Exploited Organisms and Their Wide Variety of “Refuges” 310 Concept 14.3 Review 312 // 14.4 Ratio-Dependent Models of Functional Response 312 Alternative Model for Trophic Ecology 312 // Evidence for Ratio-Dependent Predation 313 Concept 14.4 Review 315 // 14.5 Complex Interactions 315 // Parasites and Pathogens That Manipulate Host Behavior 315 // The Entangling of Exploitation with Competition 318 Concept 14.5 Review 319 // Applications: The Value of Pest Control by Bats: A Case Study 319 // chapter > Mutualism 323 // Concepts 323 // 15.1 Plant Mutualisms 324 // Plant Performance and Mycorrhizal Fungi 325 Ants and Swollen Thorn Acacias 328 A Temperate Plant Protection Mutualism 332 Concept 15.1 Review 333 // 15.2 Coral Mutualisms 333 Zooxanthellae and Corals 334 // A Coral Protection Mutualism 334 Concept 15.2 Review 336 // 15.3 Evolution of Mutualism 336 // Facultative Ant-Plant Protection Mutualisms 338 Concept 15.3 Review 339 Applications: Mutualism and Humans 339 Guiding Behavior 339 // chapter ! 4 Exploitative Interactions: // Predation, Herbivory, Parasitism, and Disease 297 // Concepts 297 // 14.1 Exploitation and Abundance 298 // A Herbivorous

Stream Insect and Its Algal Food 298 Bats, Birds, and Herbivory in a Tropical Forest 299 A Pathogenic Parasite, a Predator, and Its Prey 301 Concept 14.1 Review 302 // Section V // COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS // chapter 6 Species Abundance and Diversity 343 // Concepts 343 // 16.1 Species Abundance 345 // The Lognormal Distribution 345 Concept 16.1 Review 346 // x // Contents // 16.2 Species Diversity 346 // A Quantitative Index of Species Diversity 346 Rank-Abundance Curves 347 // Concept 16.2 Review 348 // 16.3 Environmental Complexity 348 // Forest Complexity and Bird Species Diversity 348 Niches, Heterogeneity, and the Diversity of Algae and Plants 349 // The Niches of Algae and Terrestrial Plants 350 Complexity in Plant Environments 351 Soil and Topographic Heterogeneity and the Diversity of Tropical Forest Trees 351 Nutrient Enrichment Can Reduce Environmental Complexity 352 // Nitrogen Enrichment and Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Diversity 353 Concept 16.3 Review 354 // 16.4 Disturbance and Diversity 354 // The Nature and Sources of Disturbance 354 The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis 354 Disturbance and Diversity in the Intertidal . // Zone 355 // Disturbance and Diversity in Temperate Grasslands 355 Concept 16.4 Review 357 Applications: Disturbance by Humans 357 Urban Diversity 358 // chapter Species Interactions and // Community Structure 362 // Concepts 362 // 17.1 Community Webs 364 // Detailed Food Webs Reveal Great Complexity 364 Strong Interactions and Food Web Structure

364 Concept 17.1 Review 365 // 17.2 Indirect Interactions 366 Indirect Commensalism 366 Apparent Competition 366 Concept 17.2 Review 368 // 17.3 Keystone Species 368 // Food Web Structure and Species Diversity 369 Experimental Removal of Sea Stars 370 Snail Effects on Algal Diversity 370 Fish as Keystone Species in River Food Webs 373 Concept 17.3 Review 375 // 17.4 Mutualistic Keystones 375 // A Cleaner Fish as a Keystone Species 375 Seed Dispersal Mutualists as Keystone Species 376 Concept 17.4 Review 377 // Applications: Human Modification of Food Webs 377 // The Empty Forest: Hunters and Tropical Rain Forest Animal Communities 377 Ants and Agriculture: Keystone Predators for Pest Control 378 // chapter 18 Primary and Secondary Production 381 // Concepts 381 // 18.1 Patterns of Terrestrial Primary Production 383 Actual Evapotranspiration and Terrestrial Primary // Production 383 // Soil Fertility and Terrestrial Primary Production 384 Concept 18.1 Review 385 // 18.2 Patterns of Aquatic Primary Production 385 Patterns and Models 385 // Whole-Lake Experiments on Primary Production 386 Global Patterns of Marine Primary Production 386 Concept 18.2 Review 387 // 18.3 Primary Producer Diversity 388 // Terrestrial Plant Diversity and Primary Production 388 Algal Diversity and Aquatic Primary Production 389 Concept 18.3 Review 389 // 18.4 Consumer Influences 390 Piscivores, Planktivores, and Lake Primary // Production 390 // Grazing by Large Mammals and Primary Production on the Serengeti

392 Concept 18.4 Review 394 // 18.5 Secondary Production 394 // A Trophic Dynamic View of Ecosystems 395 // Linking Primary Production and Secondary Production 396 Concept 18.5 Review 397 // Applications: Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Study Feeding Habits 397 // Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Sources of Energy in a Salt Marsh 398 // Chapter 9 Nutrient Cycling and Retention 401 // Concepts 401 // 19.1 Nutrient Cycles 402 The Phosphorus Cycle 403 The Nitrogen Cycle 404 The Carbon Cycle 405 Concept 19.1 Review 406 // 19.2 Rates of Decomposition 406 Decomposition in Two Mediterranean Woodland // Ecosystems 406 // Decomposition in Two Temperate Forest Ecosystems 407 Decomposition in Aquatic Ecosystems 409 Concept 19.2 Review 410 // 19.3 Organisms and Nutrients 410 Nutrient Cycling in Streams and Lakes 410 Animals and Nutrient Cycling in Terrestrial // Ecosystems 413 // Plants and the Nutrient Dynamics of Ecosystems 414 Concept 19.3 Review 415 // Contents // xi // 19.4 Disturbance and Nutrients 415 // Disturbance and Nutrient Loss from Forests 415 Flooding and Nutrient Export by Streams 416 Concept 19.4 Review 417 Applications: Altering Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems 417 // Chapter ; ) Succession and Stability 421 Concepts 421 // 20.1 Community Changes During Succession 423 Primary Succession at Glacier Bay 423 Secondary Succession in Temperate Forests 424 Succession in Rocky Intertidal Communities 425 Succession in Stream Communities 426 Concept 20.1 Review 427 // 20.2 Ecosystem

Changes During Succession 427 Ecosystem Changes at Glacier Bay 427 Four Million Years of Ecosystem Change 427 Succession and Stream Ecosystem Properties 429 Concept 20.2 Review 431 // 20.3 Mechanisms of Succession 431 Facilitation 431 // Tolerance 431 Inhibition 431 // Successional Mechanisms in the Rocky Intertidal Zone 431 // Successional Mechanisms in Forests 434 Concept 20.3 Review 435 // 20.4 Community and Ecosystem Stability 435 Lessons from the Park Grass Experiment 435 Replicate Disturbances and Desert Stream Stability 437 Concept 20.4 Review 438 // Applications: Ecological Succession Informing Ecological Restoration 438 // Applying Succession Concepts to Restoration 438 // Section VI // LARGE-SCALE ECOLOGY // chapter 2 1 Landscape Ecology 443 // Concepts 443 // 21.1 Landscape Structure 445 // The Structure of Six Landscapes in Ohio 445 The Fractal Geometry of Landscapes 447 Concept 21.1 Review 448 // 21.2 Landscape Processes 448 // Landscape Structure and the Dispersal of Mammals 449 Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and the Density of Butterfly Populations 450 Habitat Corridors and Movement of Organisms 451 Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry 452 Concept 21.2 Review 453 // 21.3 Origins of Landscape Structure and Change 453 Geological Processes, Climate, and Landscape Structure 454 // Organisms and Landscape Structure 456 // Fire and the Structure of a Mediterranean Landscape 460 // Concept 21.3 Review 461 // Applications: Landscape Approaches to Mitigating Urban Heat

Islands 461 // chapter 2 2 Geographic Ecology 466 // Concepts 466 // 22.1 Area, Isolation, and Species Richness 468 Island Area and Species Richness 468 Island Isolation and Species Richness 470 Concept 22.1 Review 471 // 22.2 The Equilibrium Model of Island Biogeography 471 Species Turnover on Islands 472 // Experimental Island Biogeography 473 Colonization of New Islands by Plants 474 Manipulating Island Area 475 Island Biogeography Update 476 Concept 22.2 Review 476 // 22.3 Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness 476 Latitudinal Gradient Hypotheses 476 // Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness 478 Continental Area and Species Richness 479 Concept 22.3 Review 480 // 22.4 Historical and Regional Influences 480 Exceptional Patterns of Diversity 480 Historical and Regional Explanations 481 Concept 22.4 Review 482 // Applications: Global Positioning Systems, Remote Sensing, and Geographic Information Systems 483 Global Positioning Systems 483 Remote Sensing 483 Geographic Information Systems 485 // Chapter 23 Global Ecology 488 Concepts 488 // The Atmospheric Envelope and the Greenhouse Earth 489 // 23.1 A Global System 491 The Historical Thread 491 El Nino and La Nina 492 // El Nino Southern Oscillation and Marine Populations 493 El Nino and the Great Salt Lake 495 El Nino and Terrestrial Populations in Australia 496 Concept 23.1 Review 497 // 23.2 Human Activity and the Global Nitrogen Cycle 497 Concept 23.2 Review 498 // 23.3 Changes in Land Cover 498 Tropical Deforestation

498 Concept 23.3 Review 502 // xii // Contents // 23.4 Human Influence on Atmospheric Composition 502 Depletion and Recovery of the Ozone Layer 505 Concept 23.4 Review 506 // Applications: Impacts of Global Climate Change 506 // Shifts in Biodiversity and Widespread Extinction of Species 506 // Human Impacts of Climate Change 507 // Appendix A Investigating the Evidence // 1: The Scientific Method—Questions and Hypotheses 511 // 2: Determining the Sample Mean 512 // 3: Determining the Sample Median 513 // 4: Variation in Data 514 // 5: Laboratory Experiments 515 // 6: Sample Size 516 // 7: Scatter Plots and the Relationship Between Variables 517 // 8: Estimating Heritability Using Regression Analysis 518 9: Clumped, Random, and Regular Distributions 519 10: Hypotheses and Statistical Significance 520 11 : Frequency of Alternative Phenotypes in a ’ // Population 521 // 12: A Statistical Test for Distribution Pattern 523 13: Field Experiments 524 14: Standard Error of the Mean 525 15: Confidence Intervals 527 16: Estimating the Number of Species in Communities 528 // 17: Using Confidence Intervals to Compare Populations 529 // 18: Comparing Two Populations with the /-Test 530 19: Assumptions for Statistical Tests 531 20: Variation Around the Median 532 21: Comparison of Two Samples Using a Rank Sum Test 534 // 22: Sample Size Revisited 535 // 23: Discovering What’s Been Discovered 536 // Appendix ? Statistical Tables 538 // Glossary 542 // References 552 // Index 564 // Design

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